Sustainability and Conservation of Oil Source Plants: Sandalwood, Frankincense, Rosewood
What published sources say about conservation of the trees behind sandalwood, frankincense and rosewood oils, and about the communities who harvest them.
Content last updated . This page has not been medically reviewed.
Safety first. Supplements can cause side effects and interact with medicines. Read mushroom safety and interactions before you use any mushroom product.
Safety note. This page is about plants and people, not about use. Essential oils should not be swallowed; for poisoning in the US call Poison Help at 1-800-222-1222, and call 911 for collapse, a seizure or trouble breathing.
The question
Some essential oils come from slow-growing trees that are harvested for wood or resin. This page summarizes what the sources we read say about three of them, and about the limits of what we could read.
What the terms mean
- Red List and "endangered": the papers below use IUCN Red List categories such as Vulnerable and Critically Endangered. We could not open the IUCN site this session, so we rely on how the papers report them. Status can change.
- CITES: the US Fish and Wildlife Service describes CITES as a global treaty to ensure international trade in wild plants and animals is legal, traceable and biologically sustainable. [1] We could not open the CITES species lists this session, so this page does not state which of these trees are listed. Check the current listing before relying on any statement.
- Plant names: sandalwood here is Santalum album L.; frankincense comes from several Boswellia species, including Boswellia sacra Flück.; Brazilian rosewood is Aniba rosaeodora Ducke (names checked in GBIF). [2]
Three oils, three situations
| Oil and plant | What the sources found | Evidence type |
|---|---|---|
| Sandalwood (Santalum album), heartwood | A 2024 review says the sustainability of natural sandalwood oil sources is uncertain because of overexploitation, long time to maturity and climate change. [3] A review of threatened medicinal plants of India lists Santalum album as Vulnerable (IUCN) with state-level assessments. [4] A 2023 paper lists sandalwood among plants seized at Indian airports. [5] | Reviews; secondary reports |
| Frankincense (Boswellia species), resin | In Ethiopia, Boswellia papyrifera woodland provides economic, ecological and socio-cultural benefits, yet its populations are in rapid decline from human pressure and environmental degradation. [6] A 2026 review says excessive resin harvesting impedes natural regeneration. [7] Boswellia ogadensis was listed Critically Endangered in 2018, and its authors suggest a downlisting may be warranted. [8] | Field studies; review |
| Brazilian rosewood (Aniba rosaeodora), wood | A review says the species is endangered due to decades of predatory exploitation. [9] It says oil intended for trade is obtained by steam distillation of trunk wood and bark. [9] A project was started in 2005 to guarantee sustainable supply of rosewood oil in the Brazilian Amazon. [9] | Review |
These are different plants with different problems, so one statement does not fit all "wood and resin oils". Evidence label: limited and uneven; this is conservation research, not health research.
The people who harvest
Many of the people who harvest frankincense live where the trees grow, and the sources describe them as part of the solution as well as the pressure. One review says rising demand led to unsustainable harvesting without improving community livelihoods. [7] It also says rising prices between 2010 and 2017, short-term incentives and a poverty trap pushed harvesters toward unsustainable practices. [7] Proposed strategies include regulated tapping, controlled grazing and training and capacity building for local communities. [7] The same review says the sustainability of frankincense depends on responsible harvesting, traceable supply chains and conservation of the trees. [7]
Treaty listings are debated. The review reports an argument that a CITES listing is ill-suited to conserving Boswellia species because of limited infrastructure and corruption in exporting states. [7] We read that argument as reported, not as our view.
Certification is not a guarantee
A study of 13 frankincense oils found that four of five organic-labeled oils contained a compound from a different, newly described Boswellia species. The authors say traceability and verification matter more than organic certification alone. [10] See organic, wildcrafted and origin claims.
What a reader can do
- Read the oil pages: sandalwood oil and frankincense oil.
- Ask where, which species and how the source was traced; see How to compare essential oil products.
- Proper evidence not found: we looked for independent studies showing that a particular label (fair trade, "sustainably sourced") ensures conservation of these trees. We found none in Europe PMC.
Frequently asked questions
Are sandalwood, frankincense and rosewood endangered?
The papers we read report Vulnerable status for Santalum album in an Indian list, endangered status for Aniba rosaeodora, and rapid decline of some Boswellia populations. [4] [9] [6] Check current Red List and CITES entries.
Does buying "sustainable" oil protect the trees?
We did not find evidence that a label does. A study of organic-labeled frankincense oils found mixed-in species. [10]
Why does demand matter?
One review says rising demand and prices pushed harvesters toward unsustainable practices. [7]
Is there a substitute for sandalwood oil?
Sources we read mention microbial synthesis of its main sesquiterpenoids, but we do not evaluate products. [3]
Does this affect safety?
Not directly. See Essential oil safety.
References
- CITES, US Fish and Wildlife Service. Read 2026-10-23.
- GBIF species match service, plant names checked. Read 2026-10-23.
- Biological Properties of Sandalwood Oil and Microbial Synthesis of Its Major Sesquiterpenoids, review, 2024. Read 2026-10-23.
- Status and consolidated list of threatened medicinal plants of India, 2021. Read 2026-10-23.
- Current wildlife crime (Indian scenario): major challenges and prevention approaches, 2023. Read 2026-10-23.
- Population status of Boswellia papyrifera woodland and prioritizing its conservation interventions, Ethiopia field study, 2020. Read 2026-10-23.
- Frankincense in Material Science and Engineering: Functional Applications, Economic Considerations and Sustainability Perspectives, review, 2026. Read 2026-10-23.
- Conservation Assessment and Chemistry of Boswellia ogadensis, a Critically Endangered Frankincense Tree, 2022. Read 2026-10-23.
- Chemical Diversity and Therapeutic Effects of Essential Oils of Aniba Species from the Amazon: A Review, 2021. Read 2026-10-23.
- Organic Certification is Not Enough: The Case of the Methoxydecane Frankincense, Plants, 2019. Read 2026-10-23.