Psychedelic Therapy
What They Are, What the Research Shows & Safety.
Explore the compounds, the plants and fungi they come from, and what studies in people have found. Education only: no dosing, sourcing or how-to.
Plants & Fungi
The mushrooms, cacti, vines and other organisms that contain these compounds, and traditional preparations described as history, not instructions.
Psychedelic Mushrooms & Truffles (17)
Specialized view of psilocybin and Amanita fungi. Species profiles live in the Mushrooms section.
Psilocybin Mushrooms: Overview of the Genus and Related Fungi
Psilocybin Truffles (Sclerotia): What They Are and How They Differ From Mushrooms
Psilocybe cubensis
Psilocybe semilanceata (Liberty Cap)
Psilocybe cyanescens
Psilocybe azurescens
Psilocybe mexicana
Psilocybe tampanensis
Psilocybe natalensis and Related Naming Questions
Panaeolus cyanescens
Amanita muscaria (Fly Agaric)
Amanita pantherina (Panther Cap)Commercial Mushroom Names: Species vs Cultivar vs Brand NamesWhy names like Golden Teacher or Penis Envy are labels, not species, and why a commercial name does not tell you what a mushroom product contains.Psilocybin Mushroom Chemistry and Research LimitsWhat laboratory studies show about the compounds in psilocybin mushrooms and sclerotia, why amounts vary widely, and why no typical strength exists.Species Identification and Naming: Why Photos and Names Are Not Safety AssurancesWhy a photo, a common name or a resemblance cannot tell you whether a mushroom is safe, and how scientific names, synonyms and taxonomy changes work.
Psilocybe Species Directory
Other Psilocybin-Containing Fungi Supported by Reliable Taxonomy and SourcesPsychoactive Plants & Cacti (23)
Specialized view of psychoactive plants. Botanical profiles live in Herbs & Botanicals.
Peyote (Lophophora williamsii)
San Pedro Cactus (Echinopsis pachanoi, Trichocereus pachanoi)
Chacruna (Psychotria viridis)
Chaliponga (Diplopterys cabrerana)
Ayahuasca Vine (Banisteriopsis caapi)
Iboga (Tabernanthe iboga)
Salvia divinorum
Kava: Traditional Use, Research and Liver SafetyWhat kava is, its place in Pacific Island life, what trials show for anxiety, and why regulators and the NIH raise liver safety, sedative and pregnancy concerns.
Kratom: What It Is, Regulation and RisksWhat kratom is, how the FDA and NIH describe its risks (liver injury, seizures, dependence), its unapproved legal status in the US, and how little human research exists.
Blue Lotus and Other Relevant BotanicalsWhat is and is not known about blue lotus (Nymphaea caerulea) and a few other mild psychoactive botanicals, with plain labels where proper human evidence was not found.
Datura (Jimsonweed): Poisoning DangerA poisonous plant, not a psychedelic: what the tropane alkaloids do, how poisonings happen and why it is dangerous.
Brugmansia (Angel's Trumpet): Poisoning DangerA garden plant with the same dangerous alkaloids: poisoning risks, history and what the evidence says.
Mandrake (Mandragora officinarum)Folklore versus evidence for a poisonous root, with the real poisoning risks first.
Henbane (Hyoscyamus niger)A poisonous medicinal plant: history, the alkaloids it contains and why poisoning cases occur.
Calea zacatechichi (Dream Herb)A traditional Chontal plant: what little research exists, what is unknown and legal notes.
Mimosa tenuiflora (Jurema)Brazilian tradition, DMT in the root bark, skin-research uses and MAOI interaction dangers.
Syrian Rue (Peganum harmala)Harmala alkaloids in a Middle Eastern plant: traditional use, poisoning cases and MAOI interaction dangers.Hawaiian Baby Woodrose (Argyreia nervosa)Ergoline alkaloids in the seeds: what is known, risks and pregnancy warnings.Morning Glory Seeds and OloliuquiMesoamerican history and the ergoline alkaloids in the seeds: evidence, risks and legal notes.Yopo and Cebil (Anadenanthera)Snuff traditions of South America, the tryptamines in the seeds, risks and conservation.Voacanga africanaAn African tree linked to ibogaine-type chemistry: what sources state, toxicity and legal notes.
Other Mescaline-Containing Cacti Supported by Sources
Other Psychoactive Plants: Yopo, Morning Glory Seeds and MoreTraditional Preparations (7)
Traditional preparations described respectfully, without recipes or ceremony manuals.
Ayahuasca: Traditional Preparation, Research and SafetyWhat ayahuasca is as a traditional Amazonian preparation, what research and surveys show, why it can interact dangerously with other medicines, and how it differs from DMT.
Peyote and Its Traditional ContextsPeyote as a sacrament of the Native American Church and other Indigenous peoples, what community authors ask of outsiders, the conservation concern, and the US legal exemption.
Mescaline-Cactus Traditional Contexts: San Pedro and Related TraditionsWhat sources say about San Pedro, huachuma and related mescaline-containing cacti in Andean traditions, why names are unreliable, and why one sample cannot describe a whole plant.
Iboga and Bwiti TraditionsIboga in the Bwiti religious tradition of Central Africa, how that differs from isolated ibogaine, the conservation concerns, and the serious heart risks documented for ibogaine.
Salvia divinorum Traditional ContextsWhat sources say about Salvia divinorum in Mazatec tradition, how that differs from salvinorin A and modern recreational use, and what is and is not known about its risks.Other Traditional Preparations Where Accurate, Respectful Coverage Is PossibleWhere sources allow accurate coverage, a respectful look at yopo snuff, ololiuqui and other traditional plant and animal preparations, with limits, risks and what is not covered.Traditional Preparations vs Isolated Compounds and Clinical ProductsWhy a traditional plant preparation, an isolated compound and a clinical product are three different things, using ayahuasca, iboga, Salvia divinorum and San Pedro as examples.Basics & Guides
Start here: what the words mean, how to read a study, and side-by-side comparisons.
Start here: the big picture
- What Are Psychedelics? Natural, Semisynthetic and Synthetic SubstancesStart hereWhat psychedelics are, how the words psychedelic, hallucinogen and entheogen are used, and which substances are natural, semisynthetic or synthetic, with where each is covered.
- What Does Psychoactive Mean?
- Classic Psychedelics: What the Term Covers
- Psychedelics: History and What Neuroscience ShowsA short history of psychedelic plants and fungi in human cultures and the 20th century, and what brain research does and does not show about how they work.
How they work
- Serotonin Receptors in Plain Language: What 5-HT2A Does and Does Not ExplainA plain-language look at the serotonin 5-HT2A receptor, what it is reported to explain about classic psychedelics, and why it does not explain every substance or any benefit.
- Proposed Mechanisms vs Proven Clinical OutcomesThe difference between a proposed brain mechanism, a measurable biomarker such as imaging, and a proven clinical outcome, with what is and is not established for psychedelics.
- Context and Expectancy in Psychedelic ResearchHow mindset, surroundings, expectations and unblinding can shape results in psychedelic research, what regulators and reviewers say, and why trial effect sizes may be over-estimated.
Reading the research and the claims
- Clinical Research vs Recreational UseHow supervised clinical research with psychedelic and related drugs differs from nonmedical use, and why safety findings from trials cannot be applied to unsupervised use.
- Why Different Substances Cannot Be Treated as Equivalent
- Other Hallucinogenic Substances: Atypical Agents and OthersHallucinogenic substances outside the classic psychedelic and dissociative groups, including salvia, Amanita muscaria, ibogaine and anticholinergic plants, with how each acts and the risks.
- Natural vs Synthetic Psychoactive SubstancesHow natural, semisynthetic and synthetic psychoactive substances are labeled, with examples, and why natural origin does not mean a substance or product is safe.
Side-by-side comparisons
Two things that are often confused, explained next to each other.
Compounds
Plants and fungi
Use and research
Education and research information only. This library is about psychedelic therapy built on natural psychedelics: the plants and fungi involved, what research shows by condition, what clinical settings involve, what microdosing claims do and do not hold up, risks and interactions, culture and conservation, and legal context.
It gives no dosing, sourcing, growing, extraction, synthesis or self-administration guidance and no treatment recommendations. Species profiles live in Mushrooms and Herbs & Botanicals. Legal status differs by country and changes.
How we treat evidence. Traditional ideas are described in their own terms, then kept separate from what research has measured. Where research exists we say what it covered; "Proper evidence not found" means we looked and found nothing usable. Every approach is held to the same evidence standard.
Frequently asked questions
Are natural psychedelics safe because they come from plants or fungi?
Not automatically. NIDA says effects are hard to predict, can include fear and anxiety, and that some substances, such as ibogaine, have been associated with deaths. [1]
Can psychedelics treat depression or anxiety?
[7] See PTSD research.
Are they legal?
It depends on the substance, the country and the state. In the US, several are named on the federal Schedule I list. [5] This site states law only where we read the official source.
Is traditional or ceremonial use the same as recreational use?
No. Many traditions have their own rules, teachers and meanings, and some plants are sacred to specific peoples. See Traditional and Ceremonial Contexts.
Do you recommend any of these?
No. This is education, not medical advice, and we do not recommend using any of them.
References
- National Institute on Drug Abuse, Psychedelic and Dissociative Drugs. Read 2026-10-22.
- National Institute on Drug Abuse, Psilocybin (Magic Mushrooms). Read 2026-10-22.
- US Electronic Code of Federal Regulations, 21 CFR 1308.11 Schedule I. Read 2026-10-22.
- US Electronic Code of Federal Regulations, 21 CFR 1307.31 Native American Church. Read 2026-10-22.
- National Institute on Drug Abuse, Psychedelic and Dissociative Drugs as Medicines. Read 2026-10-22.
Search the psychedelics library
Type a substance, plant, condition or question. 146 pages.
Common questions
Research
What studies in people have found, condition by condition, what clinical settings involve, and what is claimed about microdosing.
Clinical Research by Condition (9)
Evidence by condition, substance and study design, with negative and mixed findings.
Psychedelics for Major Depressive Disorder: Evidence ReviewWhat randomized trials of psilocybin with psychological support have found for major depressive disorder, including sample sizes, comparators, side effects, limits and regulatory status.End-of-Life Distress ResearchAlcohol Use Disorder ResearchTobacco Use Disorder ResearchWhat small trials of psilocybin combined with quit-smoking therapy have found, how they compare with the nicotine patch, and why the evidence is still early and not an approved treatment.Other Substance Use Disorders: Research OverviewOCD and Eating Disorders ResearchWhat the few small studies of psilocybin in obsessive-compulsive disorder and anorexia nervosa show, what they cannot show, and why these remain early research questions.Pain and Headache-Related ResearchHow to Read a Psychedelic Clinical Trial: Blinding, Expectancy, Support and Follow-UpA plain guide to reading psychedelic trial news: feasibility versus efficacy, blinding and expectancy, therapy support, follow-up, protocols, preprints and repeat publications.Psychedelic Clinical Trials and Mental Health Research: Findings and Limits
Therapy, Screening & Treatment Context (13)
What clinical settings involve, how to evaluate claims, and how to find registered trials.
What Is Psychedelic-Assisted Therapy?What psychedelic therapy means in research and licensed settings, using natural psilocybin as the main example: the parts of a treatment course, what two trials found, and why it is not the same as a retreat.What "Preparation" Means in Clinical SettingsWhat preparation sessions are in psilocybin trials and licensed programs, what they cover, and what research has and has not shown about them; a description of protocols, not instructions.What "Integration" MeansWhat "integration" means in psychedelic therapy, how trials and licensed psilocybin programs use the word, what evidence exists, and why the term and the people offering it vary widely.Screening and Eligibility in Clinical ResearchWhat psilocybin trials and licensed psychedelic therapy programs screen for or exclude, and why; a description of published criteria, not a way to check yourself.Informed Consent in Psychedelic Research and CareWhat informed consent must cover in psychedelic therapy research and care, why it is hard to do well, and what regulators and ethicists say about suggestibility, touch and unmasking.Clinical Monitoring During Treatment SessionsWhat monitoring means during psychedelic therapy sessions in trials and licensed psilocybin programs, who the FDA expects to be present, and what monitoring cannot do.Therapist and Practitioner QualificationsWho is trained and licensed to support psilocybin therapy sessions, based on FDA trial guidance and the rules of Oregon and Colorado, and how training programs differ from licensure.Professional Boundaries in Psychedelic CareWhy boundaries matter more in psychedelic therapy, what trials and ethics groups say about touch, consent and monitoring, and where the evidence is thin.Vulnerability, Suggestibility and MisconductWhy people are more vulnerable and suggestible during psychedelic therapy sessions, what is known about misconduct reports, and which reporting routes we could verify.Evaluating Clinic ClaimsHow to read what clinics say about psychedelic therapy, what studies of clinic advertising found, and a checklist for spotting claims that are not supported.Evaluating Retreat ClaimsHow to read claims made by psychedelic therapy retreats and ceremonies, what surveys report about adverse effects and misconduct, and the legal and safety questions to ask.Finding and Understanding Registered Clinical TrialsHow to find a registered psilocybin or other psychedelic therapy trial, read the record's status and design fields, and avoid mistaking a plan or an enrollment notice for a result.Follow-Up and Ongoing CareWhat follow-up after a psychedelic therapy session can look like, what long-term psilocybin studies report, and questions to ask about aftercare.
Microdosing & Popular Claims (9)
What research shows about microdosing and other widely repeated claims.
What Is Microdosing?A plain definition of microdosing with natural psilocybin mushrooms and truffles, why there is no agreed scientific definition, and what research says so far, with no amounts or schedules.Human Microdosing Research: What Controlled Studies ShowWhat placebo-controlled studies, self-blinding studies and surveys of microdosing found in people, mainly with psilocybin mushrooms and truffles, and why controlled trials and surveys point in different directions.Placebo and Expectancy in MicrodosingHow placebo effects and expectations shape results when people microdose natural psilocybin mushrooms and truffles, what self-blinding and double-blind studies found, and why "I felt better" is not proof that a substance worked.Microdosing Claims: Productivity, Creativity, Mood and CognitionA claim-by-claim check of four popular promises about microdosing natural psilocybin sources, productivity, creativity, mood and cognition, against placebo-controlled studies, with plain evidence labels.Long-Term Safety Uncertainty in MicrodosingWhat is and is not known about the safety of repeated microdosing of natural psilocybin sources, including the heart-valve concern linked to the 5-HT2B receptor, short-term findings, and who needs extra caution.Self-Selection and Survey LimitationsWhy surveys and other observational studies of microdosing cannot show that it works, what self-selection means, and how to weigh survey findings against placebo-controlled trials."Neuroplasticity" Claims: What Has and Has Not Been ShownWhat research does and does not show about psilocybin, psychedelics and neuroplasticity, separating cell and animal findings from human brain imaging, blood markers and clinical outcomes."One Session Cures Everything" ClaimsA claim check on the idea that one psilocybin or psychedelic session can cure depression or anything else, comparing it with what trials found about benefits, relapse, side effects and certainty."Natural Is Safer" and Other Natural vs Synthetic Safety ClaimsA claim check on "natural is safer" and similar claims about psychoactive plants and fungi, covering variable contents, unregulated products, toxic mushrooms and why natural does not mean safe.
Effects
Reported experiences and effects, kept separate from what has been measured.
Effects & Experiences (9)
What research describes about experiences, and why intensity is not proof of benefit.
Perceptual Changes and Time PerceptionWhat research and regulator labels say about changes in vision, hearing and the sense of time with psychedelic and dissociative substances, and what those studies can and cannot tell us.Emotional EffectsHow studies and regulators describe the emotional effects of psychedelic, dissociative and related substances, from joy and closeness to fear, and why lab findings are not treatment results.Altered Sense of Self and Ego DissolutionWhat researchers mean by ego dissolution, how it is measured, what brain-imaging and clinical studies found, and why it is a measured experience and not a goal or a treatment.Mystical-Type Experience Measures: What the Questionnaires MeasureWhat the Mystical Experience Questionnaire and similar scales measure, how scores relate to later well-being in studies, and why a high score is not the same as a clinical outcome.Acute Anxiety and Distress During ExperiencesUrgent-help pointers first, then what studies and surveys report about anxiety, panic and distress during psychedelic and related experiences, without any advice on using substances.Nausea and Other Physical EffectsAftereffects: What Is Reported AfterwardWhat studies and reviews report in the hours, days and months after psychedelic and related experiences, from reported well-being to headache, flashbacks and rare persistent symptoms.Why Experiences Vary and Why Intensity Is Not Proof of BenefitWhy people respond so differently to the same psychoactive substance in studies, and why a stronger or more dramatic experience has not been shown to mean a better health outcome.Time Course by Substance: Source-Verified Descriptions
Safety
Risks, medicine interactions and when to get urgent help.
Read this first. These topics can involve legal restrictions, medicine interactions and serious health risks. Laws differ by country and change. Do not stop a prescribed medicine or delay care for a serious condition to try any of these. If someone may be poisoned or in a crisis, call emergency services first. See urgent help.
Safety & Interactions (19)
Risks, interactions assessed substance by substance, and when to seek urgent help.
Psychedelic Adverse Effects and ContraindicationsA factual overview of reported psychedelic side effects, frightening experiences, persisting perception problems and who trials excluded, based on NIDA, Cochrane and clinical research.Psychedelic Drug Interactions and ToxicologyWhat systematic reviews and case reports say about psychedelics with antidepressants, lithium and MAOIs such as ayahuasca, plus toxicity limits, contamination and evidence gaps.Acute Psychological Distress: Risks and Urgent HelpWhat research and regulators report about frightening or overwhelming psychedelic experiences, who is at higher risk, and where to turn for urgent help in the US.Impairment and AccidentsPsychosis VulnerabilityMania and Bipolar-Related ConcernsCardiovascular RisksSubstance-Specific Neurological RisksPersistent Perceptual Symptoms (HPPD)What hallucinogen persisting perception disorder (HPPD) is, how often brief flashbacks occur in controlled studies, what treatment reports show, and why the evidence is thin.MAO-Inhibiting Preparations and InteractionsWhy preparations that inhibit monoamine oxidase, such as ayahuasca, can interact dangerously with antidepressants and other medicines, based on reviews, a case report and a drug label.Serotonergic Medicines and Substance-Specific EvidenceLithium-Related ConcernsWhat online case reports, a systematic review and a scoping review say about seizures when lithium is combined with psychedelics, and what those reports cannot prove.Combining Psychoactive Substances, Alcohol and Other SedativesWhat NIDA, a drug label and published reviews say about the risks of mixing psychedelics and related drugs with alcohol, benzodiazepines, opioids and other substances.Pregnancy and BreastfeedingWhat a 2026 scoping review, NIDA and animal studies say about psychedelics in pregnancy and breastfeeding, and why missing human data is not evidence of safety.Adolescents, Older Adults and Multiple MedicinesWhat research and regulators say about psychedelic and related substances in teenagers and older adults, including heart and medicine-interaction concerns, and where the evidence is thin.Poisoning and Misidentification of Mushrooms and PlantsWhat to do first after eating a wild or unknown mushroom or plant, why look-alike mix-ups happen, and what poison centers and health agencies say, without any identification tips.Contamination and Adulteration in Psychoactive ProductsWhat NIDA, FDA and CDC reports say about unlabeled ingredients, fentanyl concerns and mislabeled psychoactive products, and what is still unknown about how often it happens.Unverified Mushroom Gummies and Similar ProductsWhat US health agencies found when gummies, chocolates and cones marketed as mushroom products made people seriously ill, and why a label cannot be taken as proof of what is inside.When to Seek Urgent HelpWarning signs after taking a psychedelic, mushroom product or plant that mean calling 911 or Poison Help, plus mental health crisis support, using only numbers read from official pages.
Culture
History, Indigenous and traditional context, and the conservation of the plants and fungi involved.
Culture, History & Conservation (7)
Traditional contexts, stewardship, appropriation and conservation.
Indigenous Traditions, Ethics and Conservation in Psychedelic Plant UseIndigenous traditions, history, ethnobotany, conservation and ethics around psychedelic plants and fungi, using community, legal and academic sources and leaving sacred practices unshared.Traditional and Ceremonial Contexts: Not InterchangeablePeyote, ayahuasca, iboga, San Pedro and sacred mushrooms belong to different peoples and traditions, so this page names them separately and explains why they are not interchangeable.Commercialization and AppropriationHow patents, tourism, retreats and research have affected the peoples who first used these plants, what Indigenous-led groups are asking for, and where the facts are still unclear.Peyote ConservationPeyote is a slow-growing cactus sacred to the Native American Church and other peoples, and sources describe wild populations in Texas and Mexico as under pressure from harvest and habitat loss.Plant and Habitat SustainabilityWhat sources say about pressure on ayahuasca plants, iboga and San Pedro in the wild, where the evidence is thin, and why forests, farms and communities are all part of the picture.Animal-Derived Sources and Sourcing ConcernsThe Sonoran Desert toad is the only animal known to make 5-MeO-DMT, and sources raise concerns about wild harvest, poisoning risks and unclear claims about traditional use.Cultural Description vs Clinical EndorsementDescribing how a people use a plant is not the same as showing it works or is safe, and a single isolated compound in a clinic is not the same as the tradition it came from.
Legal
Only what regulators say, with dates. Laws differ by country and change. Not legal advice.
Legal & Regulatory Context (11)
Frameworks and definitions, each statement with a jurisdiction, source and verification date.
Psychedelic Legal Status: How Law Differs by Country and Clinical vs Nonmedical UseHow law treats psilocybin and related substances in the places we could verify (US federal, Oregon, Colorado, Canada), the difference between clinical and nonmedical use, and what is not verified.Controlled-Substance Status: What Scheduling and Classification MeanWhat "scheduling" means for psychedelic and related substances, with the United States federal listings read from the official regulation and why local law can differ.Decriminalization vs LegalizationPlain-language differences between decriminalization, legalization, regulated services and medical approval for psychedelic substances, with sourced examples.Medical Approval: What Is and Is Not ApprovedWhich psychedelic and related medicines the FDA has approved, which only hold a breakthrough designation, and which remain investigational, as read from the regulator and NIDA.Investigational Research and Clinical Trial AccessHow investigational psychedelic and related drugs reach people legally in the United States: clinical trials, FDA expanded access and Right to Try, as read from FDA and the trial registry.Supervised-Service Frameworks (Oregon, Colorado and Others)How Oregon's licensed psilocybin services and Colorado's natural medicine program are set up, what New Mexico plans, and why none of this equals medical approval.Religious ExemptionsHow religious exemptions for peyote and ayahuasca work in the United States and Brazil, what they cover, and why an exemption is not the same as general legality.Plant vs Compound and Mushroom vs Sclerotium Distinctions in LawWhy drug laws often control a compound but name a plant or fungus differently, and how mushrooms and sclerotia (truffles) can be treated differently. Not legal advice.Possession vs Supply DistinctionsPlain definitions of possession, supply, distribution and manufacture in drug law, with examples read from United States, Dutch and UN texts. Definitions only, not legal advice.Import, Export and Travel QuestionsWhat official U.S. sources say about carrying controlled substances across borders and through airport screening, and why other countries need separate checks. Not legal advice.How We Verify and Date Legal InformationHow this library reads, words and dates its psychedelic legal statements, what sources it uses, and what it will not say. Not legal advice.
Content last updated . This section has not been medically reviewed.
Education, not medical advice. This section is for general information. It does not diagnose, treat or recommend use of any substance. Laws differ by country and change. If someone may be poisoned or in a crisis, call emergency services first.