Psychedelic Therapy · Fungi
Psilocybin mushrooms
Psilocybe and other genera (Panaeolus, Gymnopilus, Inocybe, Pluteus) · also called Magic mushrooms (an informal term used for many species)
Psilocybin mushrooms are a scattered group of fungi, mostly in the genus Psilocybe, that contain psilocybin, which the body turns into psilocin. Trials of purified psilocybin for depression show mixed results, and no trial has shown the mushrooms themselves treat anything. Strength varies enormously, laws are strict in many places, and deadly mushrooms can look like them. A name or photo never makes a mushroom safe.
General information, not medical advice. Last substantive update · Not medically reviewed. A named clinician has not signed off on this page. How this page is made
About Psilocybin mushrooms
Psilocybin mushrooms are not one species. Psilocybin is found in Psilocybe and, in some species, in a few unrelated genera such as Panaeolus, Gymnopilus, Inocybe and Pluteus. How much they contain swings widely, and some contain nothing. Research uses purified psilocybin; the mushrooms themselves have had one small controlled trial with no benefit beyond placebo. Wild mushrooms can look like deadly ones, and a name, a photo or an app does not make any mushroom safe.
Which fungi contain psilocybin
Psilocybe is the main genus, with about 165 species. Its psilocybin gene cluster is known for only five of them. Analyses suggest psilocybin biosynthesis first arose in Psilocybe and moved to a few other mushrooms by horizontal gene transfer, so it appears in unrelated families (Psilocybe and Gymnopilus in Hymenogastraceae, Panaeolus in Bolbitiaceae or Galeropsidaceae, Inocybe in Inocybaceae, Pluteus in Pluteaceae, per GBIF).
Reports of psilocybin exist for Panaeolus, Gymnopilus dilepis, Pluteus salicinus (psilocybin and baeocystin, no psilocin) and some Inocybe such as Inocybe aeruginascens. But a 2026 test found only 2 of 14 Chinese Panaeolus species made psilocybin, and a 2023 review says more study is needed to confirm which Panaeolus are truly psychedelic.
Natural variation in content
A laboratory study of 226 fruiting bodies from seven genera found extremely variable levels of five tryptamines. The highest were in Psilocybe, but two Psilocybe collections had none. Even one species varies: in five named Psilocybe cubensis strains, average totals ranged from 0.879% to 1.36%, and individual mushrooms differed. Cap and stalk can differ too.
The authors call this variability a risk for consumers, and say the mix of tryptamines could change effects compared with pure psilocybin.
Why names and photos are not safety
Different mushrooms share the same small, brown look. Galerina marginata, an amatoxin mushroom, causes fatal poisoning. Some Inocybe contain muscarine as well as psilocybin. A 2026 poison-centre paper reports that some suspected honey-mushroom cases were really psilocybin-containing Gymnopilus, and that wrong mushrooms can look like mild stomach upset at first.
Photo apps are not reliable enough to exclude poisonous species. This page does not teach identification.
What the clinical trials show
Depression: results range from a clear edge over placebo (104 adults) to a missed main target in the 2026 EPISODE trial (144 adults). A 2024 pooled analysis found a moderate benefit with moderate risk of bias. A 2026 review found blinding often fails in psychedelic trials.
Other areas: one trial each for cancer distress and alcohol use disorder, and a pilot for smoking. All used purified psilocybin.
Whole mushroom versus purified drug
The only controlled trial of an actual mushroom (Psilocybe cubensis, very low amounts, 34 people) found no benefit beyond expectation. NIDA says research has not established that microdosing is safe or effective.
At a glance
Traditional uses history, not proof
- A 2024 study notes that Psilocybe mushrooms have been used for centuries in Mesoamerica, and NIDA says Indigenous people in Central America used them for healing and spiritual rituals going back as far as 3000 B.C. This is tradition, not clinical proof.
Studied for research
- Depression, synthetic psilocybin in trials, low (mixed results)
- Anxiety and depression in cancer, one small trial, low
- Alcohol use disorder, one trial, low
- Quitting smoking, pilot trial, low
- Very low amounts of whole mushroom, one small trial, no benefit beyond expectation
Main compounds
- Psilocybin (becomes psilocin in the body)
- Psilocin, the active form
- Baeocystin and norbaeocystin
- Aeruginascin (first found in Inocybe aeruginascens)
- Muscarine (a toxin in some Inocybe, not a relative of psilocybin)
Common forms
- Fresh or dried whole mushrooms (the only form studied in a controlled mushroom trial)
- Edibles and candies (unregulated; higher-risk category)
- Purified synthetic psilocybin (what clinical trials used)
Research links: NIDA: Psilocybin (Magic Mushrooms) · Phylogenomics of Psilocybe, 2024 (abstract) · Tryptamines in psychotropic mushrooms, 2022 (abstract) · Mushroom identification apps, 2023 (abstract) · Adverse events in classic psychedelic studies, 2024 (abstract) · Research Library · Genes & Biomarkers Library
What it is and its history
- Accepted scientific name
- Psilocybin-containing fungi (several genera, mainly Psilocybe)
- Common names
- Magic mushrooms (English); Psilocybin mushrooms (English)
- Family or group
- Genera sit in different families of the order Agaricales (GBIF). A 2026 paper argues Panaeolus belongs in its own family, Galeropsidaceae.
- Classification
- Fungi > Basidiomycota > Agaricomycetes > Agaricales > Several: Hymenogastraceae (Psilocybe, Gymnopilus), Bolbitiaceae or Galeropsidaceae (Panaeolus), Inocybaceae (Inocybe), Pluteaceae (Pluteus) > Psilocybe, Panaeolus, Gymnopilus, Inocybe, Pluteus (and possibly others) > Psilocybe has about 165 species
- Native range
- Not verified as a group. Psilocybe has been used for centuries in Mesoamerica (2024 PNAS abstract); the 2023 Panaeolus review says psychedelic Panaeolus species are used and moved across the world.
- Habitat
- Not verified in a source read beyond: Panaeolus is commonly found on dung, pasture, grassland and forests (He 2026 abstract).
- What it looks like
- Stems: Not checked.; Fruit: The fruiting body (cap and stalk) is the part measured in studies. Content differs between cap and stalk in some species (Pluteus salicinus caps held more psilocybin; Gymnopilus dilepis stalks more than caps).
- Cultivation
- Not covered on purpose.
- Harvest and processing
- Not covered on purpose.
- Look-alikes and adulterants
- Name: Deadly amatoxin mushrooms (Galerina, Amanita, Lepiota); Note: A review says most fatal mushroom poisonings involve amatoxins; Galerina marginata is the most frequent fatal Galerina. This page does not teach identification.; Name: Muscarine-containing and other toxic mushrooms (some Inocybe, Cortinarius); Note: Some Inocybe carry muscarine alongside psilocybin. A 2026 poison-centre paper lists Galerina, Cortinarius and muscarine-containing genera as toxic look-alikes.; Name: Gymnopilus mistaken for honey mushrooms (Armillaria); Note: Some cases of suspected Armillaria ingestion were later identified as psilocybin-containing Gymnopilus (2026 paper). Photos and apps do not settle it: a 2023 test found the best app right for 49% of specimens.
- Sustainability and conservation
- Not checked.
Traditional use and history history, not clinical proof
| Tradition or era | Documented use | Source |
|---|---|---|
| Mesoamerica, traditional use | Mushrooms of the genus Psilocybe have immense cultural value and have been used for centuries in Mesoamerica (PNAS 2024 abstract). Named peoples and rites were not given in the sources read. | p38194448 |
| Central America, earlier evidence | NIDA says there is evidence that Indigenous people in Central America used psilocybin mushrooms for healing and spiritual rituals as far back as 3000 B.C. | s-nida-psilocybin |
| Modern research | The 2024 PNAS abstract notes a recent surge of interest because of the psychotherapeutic potential of psilocybin. Other historical claims were not read in a source and are NOT verified. | p38194448 |
Traditional use shows how it was used. It does not show that it works or is safe today.
What is inside, and how it may work
What it contains and how those compounds act in cells and animals. Laboratory and animal mechanisms are not proven effects in people.
Main compounds
| Compound | Family | Where it is concentrated | Activity studied | Level of evidence |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Psilocybin PubChem 10624 | tryptamine (prodrug) | Fruiting body Highly variable between genera, species and individual mushrooms; no tryptamines in some Psilocybe collections (2022 study). | Turned into psilocin in the body. 33 8 27 | Lab |
| Psilocin PubChem 4980 | tryptamine | Fruiting body (smaller amounts); not found in Pluteus salicinus in one study Variable. | The active form. 33 6 | Lab |
| Baeocystin and norbaeocystin PubChem 161359 | tryptamines | Fruiting body Measured; effects not established. | Not established from the sources read. Inocybe corydalina makes baeocystin as a second end product. 33 8 25 | Lab |
| Aeruginascin PubChem 60208480 | tryptamine | Fruiting body First described in Inocybe aeruginascens. | Not established from the sources read. 33 13 | Lab |
| Muscarine | alkaloid (toxin) | Some Inocybe Not a psilocybin relative; CID not checked. | Stimulates the parasympathetic nervous system (2013 abstract). Found in some Inocybe alongside or instead of psilocybin. 16 22 | Lab |
Mechanisms, receptors and pathways
| Target or pathway | Gene or receptor | What was found | Level |
|---|---|---|---|
| Serotonin receptors | 5-HT2A receptor (HTR2A) | Psilocin acts on serotonin 2A receptors. This is the generally accepted driver of the psychedelic experience; this overview did not re-read the imaging studies (see the psilocybin and psilocin pages). 30 | Authoritative guidance |
| How fungi make psilocybin | Psilocybin gene cluster | Psilocybin biosynthesis first arose in Psilocybe, with 4 to 5 possible horizontal transfers to other mushrooms. Inocybe makes it by different enzymes, so the ability evolved at least twice independently. Gymnopilus dilepis stalk and cap content linked to cysteine metabolism genes. 2 24 25 28 | Lab |
Absorption, metabolism and elimination
- Absorption
- Not covered at genus level; see the psilocybin and psilocin pages.
- Distribution
- Not read.
- Metabolism
- Not read.
- Elimination
- Not read.
- Bioavailability
- Not established for whole mushrooms.
Isolated compounds versus whole extracts
Nearly all human trials used purified synthetic psilocybin. Wild mushrooms contain a varied mix of tryptamines that could change effects and complicate data (2022 study), and content is extremely variable. The one controlled trial of an actual mushroom (Psilocybe cubensis) found no benefit beyond expectation.
Nutritional composition
Not a nutrient and has no nutritional claim.
5 low certainty
What was looked at
The 5 benefits and uses checked for Psilocybin mushrooms, each with how strong the evidence is. Tap one to open it.
- Depression (major and treatment-resistant)Low certainty
- Anxiety and depression in life-threatening cancerLow certainty
- Alcohol use disorderLow certainty
- Quitting smokingLow certainty
- Very low amounts of the whole mushroom (mood, creativity, thinking)Low certainty
Lab markers tracked in the studies
Depression rating scores (MADRS, HAMD17)
What is Psilocybin mushrooms good for?
The uses people ask about and how strong the human evidence is. Nearly all of it comes from purified psilocybin in supervised clinics, not from mushrooms.
Benefits, one by one
Each card is a research question, not a promise. Tap a goal to filter. Open a card to see the studies, doses and limits.
Depression (major and treatment-resistant)
Low certaintyTrials of purified, lab-made psilocybin given with therapy show mixed but often positive depression results. They did not test wild or home-grown mushrooms of any genus, which differ in strength and content.
4 studiesTrials used a purified synthetic drug under fixed clinic protocols wi…
Studies, doses and limits
What the trials found
Everything below is about synthetic psilocybin in supervised clinical trials. None of it tests wild or farmed mushrooms from Psilocybe, Panaeolus, Gymnopilus, Inocybe, Pluteus or any other genus.
Results
A 104-person US trial found lower depression scores than niacin at 6 weeks. The 144-person German EPISODE trial in treatment-resistant depression missed its main target (response 17.0% versus 10.6% on the comparison). A 2024 meta-analysis of seven trials (436 people) found a pooled effect of g 0.66 with moderate risk of bias. A 2026 review found blinding often fails in psychedelic trials, which can inflate effects.
Effect sizes as reported
Pooled Hedges g 0.66 (95% CI 0.46 to 0.86) in one meta-analysis; individual trials range from clearly positive to not significant.
Why this rating
Few and small trials, short follow-up, widespread functional unblinding, a large 2026 trial that missed its main test, and a product (synthetic psilocybin) that differs from mushrooms.
Form and dose studied
Trials used a purified synthetic drug under fixed clinic protocols with trained therapists. Amounts are not given here.
Who was studied
Screened and monitored adults; people with psychosis or mania history were generally excluded.
Limits
Selected participants; blinding failure and expectation; some trials company-linked.
Why researchers looked
Psilocybin is the main research focus; it is not an approved treatment in most places.
Traditional use
Mushrooms of the genus Psilocybe have been used for centuries in Mesoamerica (Bradshaw 2024 abstract). That tradition is separate from clinical evidence.
Proposed mechanism Authoritative guidance
The body turns psilocybin into psilocin, which acts on serotonin receptors. How that relates to any lasting benefit is not settled.
A proposed mechanism does not show that the effect happens in people.
Adverse events are common even in clinics, including raised blood pressure, anxiety and in some people suicidal thoughts. See the Safety tab.
Anxiety and depression in life-threatening cancer
Low certaintyOne small crossover trial of 51 people found large, lasting drops in distress after a high amount of synthetic psilocybin with support.
1 studiesFixed clinic protocols; amounts are not given here.
Studies, doses and limits
What the trials found
Trial used purified synthetic psilocybin with therapy unless stated; not wild mushrooms.
Results
51 adults; high-amount sessions produced large decreases in depressed mood and anxiety, with about 80% still improved at 6 months.
Why this rating
One small trial, not repeated at scale, very low amount is not a true placebo.
Form and dose studied
Fixed clinic protocols; amounts are not given here.
Who was studied
Screened adults.
Limits
Crossover design; participants could tell.
Why researchers looked
Distress is common in serious illness.
Proposed mechanism Not read
Not established for this use.
A proposed mechanism does not show that the effect happens in people.
See the Safety tab.
Alcohol use disorder
Low certaintyOne 95-person trial found fewer heavy drinking days after psilocybin with therapy than after an antihistamine control.
1 studiesFixed clinic protocols; amounts are not given here.
Studies, doses and limits
What the trials found
Trial used purified synthetic psilocybin with therapy unless stated; not wild mushrooms.
Results
Heavy drinking days 9.7% versus 23.6% over 32 weeks.
Why this rating
One trial; participants could probably tell which they got.
Form and dose studied
Fixed clinic protocols; amounts are not given here.
Who was studied
Screened adults.
Why researchers looked
Alcohol use disorder is hard to treat.
Proposed mechanism Not read
Not established for this use.
A proposed mechanism does not show that the effect happens in people.
See the Safety tab.
Quitting smoking
Low certaintyA 2026 pilot found higher abstinence with psilocybin plus therapy than with the nicotine patch plus therapy, but it was open label.
1 studiesFixed clinic protocols; amounts are not given here.
Studies, doses and limits
What the trials found
Trial used purified synthetic psilocybin with therapy unless stated; not wild mushrooms.
Results
40.5% versus 10.0% prolonged abstinence at 6 months (82 smokers).
Why this rating
Pilot, unblinded.
Form and dose studied
Fixed clinic protocols; amounts are not given here.
Who was studied
Screened adults.
Why researchers looked
Smoking is a leading cause of death.
Proposed mechanism Not read
Not established for this use.
A proposed mechanism does not show that the effect happens in people.
See the Safety tab.
Very low amounts of the whole mushroom (mood, creativity, thinking)
Low certaintyOne small placebo-controlled trial of Psilocybe cubensis found no benefit beyond expectation. NIDA says microdosing has not been shown safe or effective.
2 studiesFixed clinic protocols; amounts are not given here.
Studies, doses and limits
What the trials found
Trial used purified synthetic psilocybin with therapy unless stated; not wild mushrooms.
Results
34 people; no evidence of better well-being, creativity or thinking; a few small changes toward cognitive impairment.
Why this rating
One small trial of one species; short term.
Form and dose studied
Fixed clinic protocols; amounts are not given here.
Who was studied
Screened adults.
Why researchers looked
Popular claims of benefit.
Proposed mechanism Not read
Not established for this use.
A proposed mechanism does not show that the effect happens in people.
See the Safety tab.
Connections to the rest of health
How Psilocybin mushrooms connects to the rest of our health knowledge graph. Every link says what kind of connection it is. A safety link (for example to the liver) is a warning, not a benefit. A study that merely mentions a topic never creates a benefit link.
Explore every connection: goals, body systems, organs, symptoms, genes
B. Body systems
I. Biomarkers
| Connected to | Kind of connection | Evidence status | Context | Studies |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Depression rating scores (MADRS, HAMD17) | Biological association | Low certainty | Measured in trials: lowered. A lab change is not the same as a health benefit. | 23 18 |
J. Genes, receptors and enzymes
L. Active compounds
| Connected to | Kind of connection | Evidence status | Context | Studies |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Psilocybin | Biological association | Lab | Turned into psilocin in the body. Preparation or compound: Fruiting body |
33 8 27 |
| Psilocin | Biological association | Lab | The active form. Preparation or compound: Fruiting body (smaller amounts); not found in Pluteus salicinus in one study |
33 6 |
| Baeocystin and norbaeocystin | Biological association | Lab | Not established from the sources read. Inocybe corydalina makes baeocystin as a second end product. Preparation or compound: Fruiting body |
33 8 25 |
| Aeruginascin | Biological association | Lab | Not established from the sources read. Preparation or compound: Fruiting body |
33 13 |
| Muscarine | Biological association | Lab | Stimulates the parasympathetic nervous system (2013 abstract). Found in some Inocybe alongside or instead of psilocybin. Preparation or compound: Some Inocybe |
16 22 |
Each connection is stored with the ingredient, the connected record, the kind of connection, the evidence status, the supporting studies, the preparation or compound involved, and a review date (last reviewed October 25, 2026).
Evidence at a glance: what changed in 1 lab markers
Tap a number to show only those markers. Counts are markers, not people.
The evidence
The research centre for Psilocybin mushrooms. Every record here was checked against PubMed or the publisher's page; we never list a study we have not verified.
Evidence by outcome
Bars show how many studies we found for each outcome, not how well it works. People are added up across trials only (reviews are not added, to avoid double counting).
How we rate evidence
High certainty
Several well-run trials or reviews agree; further research is unlikely to change the picture much.
Moderate certainty
Good trials point the same way, but some doubt remains.
Low certainty
Small, short or inconsistent trials. The finding could change with better research.
Very low certainty
Very little or very weak human data. Treat as a possibility only.
Mixed findings
Trials or reviews disagree with each other.
Not enough evidence
Not enough human research to say either way.
Evidence against
Good research found no benefit, or found harm.
We take the reviewers' own risk-of-bias and GRADE statements where they exist, and otherwise judge from study size, design, consistency, directness and whether a product matches what is sold. Many publications do not make evidence high. Method note: We read the abstracts of 29 PubMed papers, read NIDA, the US federal drug schedule and the UK penalties page, and checked genus names in GBIF and compounds in PubChem. Certainty ratings are the compiler's own reading. Some trials were company-linked or had blinding problems; these are flagged. UN and non-US/UK regulatory entries were not verified.
Study library: every study we checked 34
| Study | Design | People | Product, dose, length | Result |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Bogenschutz 2022 Percentage of Heavy Drinking Days Following Psilocybin-Assisted Psychotherapy vs Placebo in the Treatment of Adult Patients With Alcohol Use Disorder: A Randomized Clinical Trial. JAMA Psychiatry · PMID 36001306 · DOI |
Controlled trial |
95 Adults with alcohol dependence |
Synthetic psilocybin versus diphenhydramine, with psychotherapy Not reproduced here See results · vs See results |
Heavy drinking days were 9.7% with psilocybin versus 23.6% with diphenhydramine (mean difference 13.9, 95% CI 3.0 to 24.7). No serious adverse events in the psilocybin group. Fewer heavy drinking days in one trial Methods, limits and fundingOutcomes: Percentage of heavy drinking days over 32 weeks Limitations: One trial; participants could probably tell which they got. Funding and conflicts: NIH-funded (research support listed) Registration: NCT02061293 Read: abstract |
| Bradshaw 2024 Phylogenomics of the psychoactive mushroom genus Psilocybe and evolution of the psilocybin biosynthetic gene cluster. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A · PMID 38194448 · DOI |
Lab analysis lab |
71 71 fungarium metagenomes |
Genome sequencing Not reproduced here See results · vs See results |
Psilocybe has about 165 species; the psilocybin gene cluster had been known for only five. The authors find psilocybin biosynthesis first arose in Psilocybe, with 4 to 5 possible horizontal transfers to other mushrooms 40 to 9 million years ago. Psilocybin arose in Psilocybe and spread to a few others Methods, limits and fundingOutcomes: Phylogeny and gene cluster evolution Limitations: Evolutionary analysis. Funding and conflicts: Not stated in the abstract Read: abstract |
| Cavanna 2022 Microdosing with psilocybin mushrooms: a double-blind placebo-controlled study. Transl Psychiatry · PMID 35918311 · DOI |
Controlled trial |
34 Adults starting to take very low amounts of Psilocybe cubensis |
Dried Psilocybe cubensis mushroom versus placebo Not reproduced here See results · vs See results |
Effects were noticeable only for people who correctly guessed what they had. No evidence of better well-being, creativity or thinking; a few small changes toward cognitive impairment. The authors conclude expectation underlies some anecdotal benefits. No benefit beyond expectation Methods, limits and fundingOutcomes: Mood, creativity, thinking, EEG Limitations: Small; one species; short term. Funding and conflicts: Not stated in the abstract Read: abstract |
| Diaz 2018 Amatoxin-Containing Mushroom Poisonings: Species, Toxidromes, Treatments, and Outcomes. Wilderness Environ Med · PMID 29325729 · DOI |
Review |
Review of amatoxin mushroom poisonings | Amanita, Lepiota and Galerina mushrooms Not reproduced here See results · vs See results |
Most mushroom poisonings are caused by unknown mushrooms, and most fatal ones by amatoxin-containing mushrooms. Galerina marginata is the most frequent fatal Galerina. Treatment is mainly supportive and some patients need a liver transplant. Deadly poisonings come mostly from unidentified wild mushrooms Methods, limits and fundingOutcomes: Epidemiology and outcomes Limitations: Narrative review. Funding and conflicts: Not stated in the abstract Read: abstract |
| Feldman 2026 A 25-year analysis of Armillaria (honey mushroom) poisoning in Wisconsin. Am J Emerg Med · PMID 42066652 · DOI |
Case series |
18 18 Wisconsin Poison Center cases |
Suspected Armillaria ingestions Not reproduced here See results · vs See results |
Poisoning usually results from misidentification. Some cases reported as Armillaria were later identified as psilocybin-containing Gymnopilus. The authors say toxic look-alikes including Gymnopilus, Galerina, Cortinarius and muscarine-containing genera should stay in mind. Early poison centre advice helps. Look-alike mix-ups across genera happen Methods, limits and fundingOutcomes: Symptoms and outcomes Limitations: Small retrospective series about a different mushroom. Funding and conflicts: Not stated in the abstract Read: abstract |
| Gartz 1987 Occurrence of Psilocybin and Baeocystin in Fruit Bodies of Pluteus salicinus. Planta Med · PMID 17269025 · DOI |
Lab analysis lab |
Dried fruit bodies of Pluteus salicinus | HPLC and TLC Not reproduced here See results · vs See results |
Psilocybin and baeocystin but not psilocin were found; caps held more psilocybin than stems and the amount varied. Pluteus salicinus contains psilocybin Methods, limits and fundingOutcomes: Psilocybin content Limitations: 1987 study; abstract read. Funding and conflicts: Not stated in the abstract Read: abstract |
| Goff 2024 Determination of psilocybin and psilocin content in multiple Psilocybe cubensis mushroom strains using liquid chromatography - tandem mass spectrometry. Anal Chim Acta · PMID 38220293 · DOI |
Lab analysis lab |
Five named strains of Psilocybe cubensis | Total psilocybin plus psilocin Not reproduced here See results · vs See results |
Average totals ranged from 0.879% to 1.36% (w/w) between five strains, and differed between mushrooms of the same strain. Content differs between and within strains Methods, limits and fundingOutcomes: Content between and within strains Limitations: Laboratory study. Funding and conflicts: Not stated in the abstract Read: abstract |
| Gotvaldova 2022 Extensive Collection of Psychotropic Mushrooms with Determination of Their Tryptamine Alkaloids. Int J Mol Sci · PMID 36430546 · DOI |
Lab analysis lab |
226 226 fruiting bodies, 82 collections, 7 genera |
Tryptamine alkaloids by UHPLC-MS/MS Not reproduced here See results · vs See results |
The highest psilocybin and psilocin were in Psilocybe species, but none was found in two Psilocybe collections. Concentrations were extremely variable, which the authors call a risk of overdose for consumers, and the mix of tryptamines may change medicinal effect compared with pure psilocybin. Content varies greatly Methods, limits and fundingOutcomes: Content of five tryptamines Limitations: Laboratory study. Funding and conflicts: Not stated in the abstract Read: abstract |
| Griffiths 2016 Psilocybin produces substantial and sustained decreases in depression and anxiety in patients with life-threatening cancer: A randomized double-blind trial. J Psychopharmacol · PMID 27909165 · DOI |
Controlled trial |
51 Adults with life-threatening cancer and depression or anxiety |
Synthetic psilocybin, high versus very low amount, crossover, with support Not reproduced here See results · vs See results |
High-amount sessions produced large decreases in depressed mood and anxiety; at 6 months about 80% still showed clinically significant decreases. Large and sustained in one small trial Methods, limits and fundingOutcomes: Depression, anxiety, quality of life Limitations: Small; very low amount is not an inert placebo so people could tell; crossover design. Funding and conflicts: NIH-funded (research support listed) Registration: NCT00465595 Read: abstract |
| He 2026 Systematic study of Panaeolus (Agaricales, Galeropsidaceae) sensu lato and psilocybin-producing traits of species from China. IMA Fungus · PMID 41607716 · DOI |
Lab analysis lab |
14 14 Panaeolus species from China tested |
HPLC-MS Not reproduced here See results · vs See results |
Two of 14 species were confirmed to produce psilocybin (P. cinctulus and a newly named species). The panaeo-clade is argued to be its own family, Galeropsidaceae. Only some Panaeolus species make psilocybin Methods, limits and fundingOutcomes: Psilocybin-producing traits Limitations: Species tested were from China. Funding and conflicts: Not stated in the abstract Read: abstract |
| Hinkle 2024 Adverse Events in Studies of Classic Psychedelics: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. JAMA Psychiatry · PMID 39230883 · DOI |
Systematic review |
3504 214 studies, 3,504 participants with analysable data |
Classic psychedelics in research settings Not reproduced here See results · vs See results |
Serious events were reported for approximately 4% of participants with existing neuropsychiatric disorders (worsening depression, suicidal behaviour, psychosis, convulsive episodes) and none for healthy participants. No reports of deaths by suicide, persistent psychosis or persisting perception disorder in contemporary research settings, but adverse-event monitoring was uneven. Serious events rare in research, uneven monitoring Methods, limits and fundingOutcomes: Adverse events Limitations: Monitoring and reporting quality varied. Funding and conflicts: Not stated in the abstract Read: abstract |
| Hodgson 2023 A comparison of the accuracy of mushroom identification applications using digital photographs. Clin Toxicol (Phila) · PMID 36794335 · DOI |
Observational |
78 78 mushroom specimens sent to an Australian poisons centre |
Three phone identification apps Not reproduced here See results · vs See results |
The best app was right for 49% of specimens; the others 35%. The authors say the apps are not reliable enough to exclude poisonous mushrooms when used alone, and report poisonings after apps misidentified poisonous species as edible. Photo apps are unreliable Methods, limits and fundingOutcomes: Accuracy against an expert mycologist Limitations: Three apps, 78 specimens, wide confidence intervals. Funding and conflicts: Not stated in the abstract Read: abstract |
| Jensen 2006 Aeruginascin, a trimethylammonium analogue of psilocybin from the hallucinogenic mushroom Inocybe aeruginascens. Planta Med · PMID 16673333 · DOI |
Lab analysis lab |
Inocybe aeruginascens | Chemical analysis Not reproduced here See results · vs See results |
Inocybe aeruginascens contains psilocybin and also aeruginascin, found only in this species so far. Aeruginascin identified Methods, limits and fundingOutcomes: Structure of aeruginascin Limitations: Chemistry paper. Funding and conflicts: Not stated in the abstract Read: abstract |
| Johnson 2026 Psilocybin or Nicotine Patch for Smoking Cessation: A Pilot Randomized Clinical Trial. JAMA Netw Open · PMID 41805956 · DOI |
Controlled trial |
82 Adult smokers |
Synthetic psilocybin plus CBT versus nicotine patch plus CBT Not reproduced here See results · vs See results |
Prolonged abstinence was 40.5% with psilocybin versus 10.0% with the patch (odds ratio 6.12, 95% CI 1.99 to 23.26). Open label: participants and investigators knew the treatment. Higher quit rate in a pilot Methods, limits and fundingOutcomes: Biochemically verified abstinence at 6 months Limitations: Pilot, unblinded, psychiatrically healthy volunteers. Funding and conflicts: Not stated in the abstract Registration: NCT01943994 Read: abstract |
| Jorgenson 2026 Psychoactive mushroom edibles: trends and toxicities reported to the United States National Poison Data System, 2023-2024. Clin Toxicol (Phila) · PMID 41493095 · DOI |
Observational |
362 362 US poison-centre exposures to psychoactive mushroom edibles |
Edible products containing Amanita muscaria, psilocybin or unspecified Not reproduced here See results · vs See results |
Products are unregulated with unlisted ingredients. Mixing substances raised the chance of admission (aOR 2.58). Effects were unpredictable; no deaths were reported. Unpredictable effects, more admissions with mixing Methods, limits and fundingOutcomes: Admission and toxicity Limitations: Reported exposures only. Funding and conflicts: Not stated in the abstract Read: abstract |
| Kosentka 2013 Evolution of the toxins muscarine and psilocybin in a family of mushroom-forming fungi. PLoS One · PMID 23717644 · DOI |
Lab analysis lab |
30 Inocybaceae samples |
LC-MS/MS and review Not reproduced here See results · vs See results |
Muscarine evolved independently several times; psilocybin-producing Inocybaceae are not a single group, with at least two independent transitions to psilocybin production. Psilocybin appears scattered within Inocybaceae Methods, limits and fundingOutcomes: Muscarine and psilocybin distribution Limitations: Evolutionary analysis. Funding and conflicts: Not stated in the abstract Read: abstract |
| Leonard 2018 Does getting high hurt? J Psychopharmacol · PMID 30182795 · DOI |
Observational |
5883 5,883 single-substance psilocybin-mushroom exposures in US poison centres |
Psilocybin-containing mushrooms (unsupervised use) Not reproduced here See results · vs See results |
Common effects were hallucinations (45.8%), agitation (24.1%) and fast heart rate (18.0%). Serious effects were infrequent but included overheating, seizures, coma and cardiac arrest. Most patients were treated and released. Mostly mild or moderate, with rare serious cases Methods, limits and fundingOutcomes: Clinical effects and outcomes Limitations: Reported cases only; mushroom type unconfirmed. Funding and conflicts: Not stated in the abstract Read: abstract |
| Mertens 2026 Efficacy and Safety of Psilocybin in Treatment-Resistant Major Depression: The EPISODE Randomized Clinical Trial. JAMA Psychiatry · PMID 41848690 · DOI |
Controlled trial |
144 Adults with treatment-resistant depression in Germany |
Synthetic psilocybin versus nicotinamide, with psychotherapy Not reproduced here See results · vs See results |
Response was 17.0% with the higher psilocybin amount, 12.5% with the lower, and 10.6% with nicotinamide. The first comparison was not significant (P=.19). Suicidal thoughts on dosing days 4% versus 1 to 2%; two serious reactions including one case of hallucinogen persisting perception disorder. The authors call it an inconclusive trial. Main target missed Methods, limits and fundingOutcomes: Treatment response (50% fall in HAMD17) at week 6 Limitations: Triple-blind but functional unblinding likely; short follow-up. Funding and conflicts: Not stated in the abstract Registration: NCT04670081 Read: abstract |
| Metaxa 2024 Efficacy of psilocybin for treating symptoms of depression: systematic review and meta-analysis. BMJ · PMID 38692686 · DOI |
Meta-analysis |
436 Seven randomised trials in adults with depression |
Synthetic psilocybin versus comparators Not reproduced here See results · vs See results |
Pooled benefit (Hedges g 0.66, 95% CI 0.46 to 0.86). All studies had moderate risk of bias; GRADE certainty rated moderate by the authors. Larger effects with self-rated scales and in people who had used psychedelics before, which the authors link to possible expectancy. Moderate pooled benefit with expectancy concerns Methods, limits and fundingOutcomes: Change in depression scores Limitations: Few and small trials; risk of bias moderate in all. Funding and conflicts: Not stated in the abstract Read: abstract |
| Nayak 2021 Classic Psychedelic Coadministration with Lithium, but Not Lamotrigine, is Associated with Seizures: An Analysis of Online Psychedelics Forums. Pharmacopsychiatry · PMID 34348413 · DOI |
Case report |
Online reports from three websites | Classic psychedelics with mood stabilisers Not reproduced here See results · vs See results |
47% of 62 lithium reports involved seizures; none of 34 lamotrigine reports did. The authors provisionally conclude psychedelics may pose a significant seizure risk for people on lithium. Possible seizure signal Methods, limits and fundingOutcomes: Seizures and medical attention Limitations: Anonymous, unverified reports. Funding and conflicts: Not stated in the abstract Read: abstract |
| Orsini 2026 Blinding Integrity in Psychedelic Randomized Clinical Trials: A Systematic Review. JAMA Psychiatry · PMID 41984443 · DOI |
Systematic review |
112 112 randomised trials of psychedelics in psychiatry |
Psychedelics including psilocybin Not reproduced here See results · vs See results |
Only 29.5% of trials checked whether blinding worked. The authors say this raises concern about how valid the efficacy estimates are. Functional unblinding is widespread Methods, limits and fundingOutcomes: Blinding checks and functional unblinding Limitations: Review of trial reporting, not of outcomes. Funding and conflicts: Not stated in the abstract Read: abstract |
| Patocka 2021 Chemistry and Toxicology of Major Bioactive Substances in Inocybe Mushrooms. Int J Mol Sci · PMID 33672330 · DOI |
Review lab |
Review of Inocybe mushroom toxins | Inocybe species Not reproduced here See results · vs See results |
Inocybe is a large genus containing muscarine, psilocybin, psilocin, aeruginascin, lectins and baeocystin. The review covers muscarine, psilocybin and psilocin toxic effects. Some Inocybe carry muscarine as well as psilocybin Methods, limits and fundingOutcomes: Toxins and effects Limitations: Narrative review; abstract read. Funding and conflicts: Not stated in the abstract Read: abstract |
| Raison 2023 Single-Dose Psilocybin Treatment for Major Depressive Disorder: A Randomized Clinical Trial. JAMA · PMID 37651119 · DOI |
Controlled trial |
104 Adults with major depressive disorder |
Synthetic psilocybin versus niacin placebo, with psychological support Not reproduced here See results · vs See results |
Lower depression scores than niacin at day 43 (mean difference -12.3, 95% CI -17.5 to -7.2) and day 8. No serious treatment-related adverse events, but more overall and more severe adverse events with psilocybin. Clear edge over placebo at 6 weeks Methods, limits and fundingOutcomes: Change in depression score (MADRS) at day 43 Limitations: Industry-linked phase 2 trial; psychedelic effects make blinding hard; people with psychosis or mania history excluded. Funding and conflicts: Funding not read in the abstract Registration: NCT03866174 Read: abstract |
| Reynolds 2018 Horizontal gene cluster transfer increased hallucinogenic mushroom diversity. Evol Lett · PMID 30283667 · DOI |
Lab analysis lab |
Three hallucinogenic mushroom genomes | Genome sequencing Not reproduced here See results · vs See results |
A psilocybin gene cluster was found in three hallucinogenic mushroom genomes with evidence of horizontal transfer between fungal lineages, explaining the scattered distribution of psilocybin in unrelated mushrooms. Scattered distribution explained by gene transfer Methods, limits and fundingOutcomes: Psilocybin gene cluster Limitations: Evolutionary analysis. Funding and conflicts: Not stated in the abstract Read: abstract |
| Schafer 2025 Dissimilar Reactions and Enzymes for Psilocybin Biosynthesis in Inocybe and Psilocybe Mushrooms. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl · PMID 40977073 · DOI |
Lab analysis lab |
Inocybe corydalina enzymes | In-vitro enzyme assays Not reproduced here See results · vs See results |
Inocybe uses different enzymes and a branched pathway (also making baeocystin), so mushrooms evolved psilocybin production twice independently. Two independent origins of the pathway Methods, limits and fundingOutcomes: Psilocybin pathway Limitations: Test-tube study. Funding and conflicts: Not stated in the abstract Read: abstract |
| Strauss 2023 Global species diversity and distribution of the psychedelic fungal genus Panaeolus. Heliyon · PMID 37274634 · DOI |
Review lab |
Review of genus Panaeolus | Panaeolus species Not reproduced here See results · vs See results |
Panaeolus species are reputed to contain psilocybin and are used recreationally. The review says a great deal of study is still needed to confirm which species are truly psychedelic and which compounds they make. Which Panaeolus are psychoactive is not settled Methods, limits and fundingOutcomes: Diversity, distribution, psychedelic potential Limitations: Review of published data. Funding and conflicts: Not stated in the abstract Read: abstract |
| Stribrny 2003 Levels of psilocybin and psilocin in various types of mushrooms. Soud Lek · PMID 14631713 |
Lab analysis lab |
Czech mushrooms | GC/MS Not reproduced here See results · vs See results |
Psilocybin and psilocin are found in Psilocybe and many others (Panaeolus, Inocybe, Pluteus). Several Psilocybe species had high content. Content differs by genus and species Methods, limits and fundingOutcomes: Semi-quantitative content Limitations: English abstract only; semi-quantitative. Funding and conflicts: Not stated in the abstract Read: abstract |
| Yao 2022 Cystathionine Gamma-Lyase Regulate Psilocybin Biosynthesis in Gymnopilus dilepis Mushroom via Amino Acid Metabolism Pathways. J Fungi (Basel) · PMID 36012858 · DOI |
Lab analysis lab |
Gymnopilus dilepis mushrooms and mycelium | UPLC and RNA-Seq Not reproduced here See results · vs See results |
Psilocybin was measured in Gymnopilus dilepis, in the stalk more than the cap, and linked to cysteine metabolism genes. Gymnopilus dilepis makes psilocybin Methods, limits and fundingOutcomes: Psilocybin in different parts Limitations: Laboratory study of one species. Funding and conflicts: Not stated in the abstract Read: abstract |
| Yao 2024 Mushroom poisoning of Panaeolus subbalteatus from Ningxia, northwest China, with species identification and tryptamine detection. Toxicon · PMID 38971474 · DOI |
Case report |
Two poisoning incidents in China | Wild Panaeolus subbalteatus Not reproduced here See results · vs See results |
Some patients had stomach or nerve symptoms about 30 minutes after eating a large amount of wild mushroom (nausea, vomiting, numbness, dizziness, abnormal sense of direction). Psilocybin and psilocin were found in the mushrooms and only psilocin in blood and urine. Wild Panaeolus can cause real poisoning Methods, limits and fundingOutcomes: Symptoms and toxin detection Limitations: Two incidents. Funding and conflicts: Not stated in the abstract Read: abstract |
| n/a 2026 NIDA: Psilocybin (Magic Mushrooms) (page read 2026-10-25) n/a · Source |
Authoritative guidance n/a |
n/a | n/a See results · vs See results |
NIDA says psilocybin is a chemical in certain mushrooms that grow on nearly every continent; users may mistake a toxic mushroom for a psilocybin one; some products sold as psilocybin candies contained toxic chemicals (CDC); psilocybin raises blood pressure and heart rate; there is no data on safety in pregnancy; microdosing has not been shown safe or effective; FDA granted Breakthrough Therapy designation to a few formulations studied for depression. Methods, limits and fundingOutcomes: NIDA says psilocybin is a chemical in certain mushrooms that grow on nearly every continent; users may mistake a toxic mushroom for a psilocybin one; some products sold as psilocybin candies contained toxic chemicals (CDC); psilocybin raises blood pressure and heart rate; there is no data on safety in pregnancy; microdosing has not been shown safe or effective; FDA granted Breakthrough Therapy designation to a few formulations studied for depression. Limitations: Fact page, not a trial; gives no formal legal status. Read: full-text |
| n/a 2026 US eCFR: 21 CFR 1308.11 Schedule I (version dated 2026-10-20) n/a · Source |
Regulation n/a |
n/a | n/a See results · vs See results |
Schedule I hallucinogenic substances include Psilocybin (code 7437) and Psilocyn (code 7438). Methods, limits and fundingOutcomes: Schedule I hallucinogenic substances include Psilocybin (code 7437) and Psilocyn (code 7438). Limitations: Lists the chemicals; does not discuss mushrooms or state-level changes. Read: full-text |
| n/a 2026 GOV.UK: Penalties for drug possession and dealing (page read 2026-10-25) n/a · Source |
Regulation n/a |
n/a | n/a See results · vs See results |
The page lists magic mushrooms among Class A drugs. It does not discuss psilocybin as a separate substance. Methods, limits and fundingOutcomes: The page lists magic mushrooms among Class A drugs. It does not discuss psilocybin as a separate substance. Limitations: Summary page; not the Misuse of Drugs Act itself. Read: full-text |
| n/a 2026 PubChem: psilocybin (CID 10624), psilocin (CID 4980), baeocystin (CID 161359), norbaeocystin (CID 9795063), aeruginascin (CID 60208480) n/a · Source |
Database n/a |
n/a | n/a See results · vs See results |
Psilocybin C12H17N2O4P (284.25); psilocin C12H16N2O (204.27); baeocystin C11H15N2O4P (270.22); norbaeocystin C10H13N2O4P (256.19); aeruginascin C13H20N2O4P+ (299.28). Methods, limits and fundingOutcomes: Psilocybin C12H17N2O4P (284.25); psilocin C12H16N2O (204.27); baeocystin C11H15N2O4P (270.22); norbaeocystin C10H13N2O4P (256.19); aeruginascin C13H20N2O4P+ (299.28). Limitations: Chemical database, not a safety source. Read: api |
| n/a 2026 GBIF Backbone Taxonomy: genera Psilocybe (2526775), Panaeolus (2524401), Gymnopilus (2527854), Inocybe (2527866), Pluteus (2526826), Galerina (9570632), Amanita (6005964), retrieved 2026-10-25 n/a · Source |
Database n/a |
n/a | n/a See results · vs See results |
All accepted genera in Agaricales (Basidiomycota). Families per GBIF: Psilocybe and Gymnopilus and Galerina in Hymenogastraceae; Panaeolus in Bolbitiaceae (a 2026 paper proposes Galeropsidaceae); Inocybe in Inocybaceae; Pluteus in Pluteaceae; Amanita in Amanitaceae. Methods, limits and fundingOutcomes: All accepted genera in Agaricales (Basidiomycota). Families per GBIF: Psilocybe and Gymnopilus and Galerina in Hymenogastraceae; Panaeolus in Bolbitiaceae (a 2026 paper proposes Galeropsidaceae); Inocybe in Inocybaceae; Pluteus in Pluteaceae; Amanita in Amanitaceae. Limitations: Taxonomy changes; GBIF is a compiled backbone. Read: api |
What we do not know yet
- No controlled trial of any wild or farmed mushroom for an illness except one small null microdosing study.
- Which species outside Psilocybe truly contain psilocybin is not settled.
- Functional unblinding limits how far benefits can be trusted.
- Long-term and unsupervised-use safety is poorly measured.
- Interactions with common antidepressants were not found in the sources read.
How new research is added
New studies go to a review queue and a person reads each before any rating changes.
Lab markers
What changed in blood or saliva tests during trials. A changed number is not the same as feeling or being healthier, and we give no "normal ranges".
Other 1
Depression rating scores (MADRS, HAMD17)
Lowered in trials
Standard interviews that turn depression symptoms into a score. Lower means fewer symptoms.
Low certaintyResults and what it means
Why it was measured
They are how trials judge depression treatments.
Statistical vs. clinical meaning
Score changes can be real yet inflated by expectation when people know they received a psychedelic.
Safety implication
Suicidal thoughts on dosing days were more often reported in one trial.
| Study | Result | People | Product |
|---|---|---|---|
| 23 | Lower MADRS than niacin at day 43 (mean difference -12.3, 95% CI -17.5 to -7.2). | 104 adults with major depression | Synthetic psilocybin versus niacin |
| 18 | Response (50% fall) was 17.0% versus 10.6%; not significant (P=.19). | 144 adults with treatment-resistant depression | Synthetic psilocybin versus nicotinamide |
Safety
What studies and official sources say about side effects, medicines and who should check first. Each point shows what kind of evidence it comes from.
Main points to know 11
- Wild mushrooms can look like deadly ones: a name, a photo or an app does not make a mushroom safe. Most mushroom poisonings come from unidentified wild mushrooms, and most deaths from mushrooms that contain amatoxins (Amanita, Lepiota and Galerina). Galerina marginata is the most frequent fatal Galerina. In a test of three phone identification apps on 78 specimens, the best was right for 49%, and the authors say the apps are not reliable enough to exclude poisonous mushrooms. NIDA lists mistaking a toxic mushroom for a psilocybin one as a risk. This page does not teach identification and nothing here makes any mushroom safe. Review 4 12 30
- Look-alikes cross genera: psilocybin mushrooms and poisonous ones can be mistaken for each other. A 2026 Wisconsin poison-centre series reports that some cases of suspected honey-mushroom (Armillaria) ingestion turned out to be psilocybin-containing Gymnopilus, and says toxic look-alikes including Gymnopilus, Galerina, Cortinarius and muscarine-containing genera should stay in mind. Some Inocybe contain muscarine as well as psilocybin. Deadly poisoning can look like a mild stomach upset at first. Case series 5 22 4
- Psychosis, mania, bipolar disorder and serious mental illness. Trials excluded people with a history of psychosis or mania. Serious events in research included worsening depression, suicidal behaviour and psychosis in people with existing neuropsychiatric conditions (about 4% in one review). NIDA says mental-health problems are more likely outside clinical settings. Systematic review 11 23 30
- Strength and contents vary hugely between mushrooms, species and genera. A laboratory study of 226 fruiting bodies from seven genera found extremely variable tryptamine levels; the authors call this an overdose risk for consumers. Two Psilocybe collections had none. Even within one species, strains and individual mushrooms differ. Wild mushrooms also carry other tryptamines. Different genera can carry other toxins too (muscarine in some Inocybe). Lab analysis 8 7 22
- Lithium and seizures. In 62 online reports of lithium with a classic psychedelic, 47% involved seizures. These are anonymous, unverified reports, but the authors call the risk significant. Case report 20
- Fear, panic and risky behaviour. NIDA says the experience can be frightening and can lead to dangerous behaviour such as unsafe driving. Poison-centre data (5,883 cases) found hallucinations, agitation and fast heart rate most common; serious effects were infrequent. Observational 30 17
- Heart and blood pressure. Psilocybin typically raises blood pressure and heart rate, which NIDA says may be dangerous for people with heart conditions. Authoritative guidance 30
- Real poisoning can happen with wild psilocybin species too. In two Chinese incidents with wild Panaeolus subbalteatus, some patients had nausea, vomiting, numbness, dizziness or an abnormal sense of direction about 30 minutes after eating a large amount. Case report 29
- Edibles and look-alike products. US poison centres received 362 reports of mushroom edibles in 2023-2024. Ingredients were often unlisted and mixing substances raised the chance of admission. NIDA cites CDC reports that some candies marketed as psilocybin products contained toxic chemicals and caused severe illness. Observational 15 30
- Pregnancy. NIDA says there is no data on the safety of psilocybin in pregnancy. Authoritative guidance 30
- Legal status. Psilocybin and psilocyn are US Schedule I; the UK lists magic mushrooms as Class A. Laws differ by country and change. Check a current official source. This is not legal advice. Regulation 31 32
Side effects 5
| Effect | How often | Severity and recovery | Evidence |
|---|---|---|---|
| Raised blood pressure and heart rate NIDA warns about heart conditions. | Common | mild to moderate; risky with heart disease Usually while effects last | Authoritative guidance 30 |
| Anxiety, fear, panic More likely outside supervised settings. | Not established | moderate Usually resolves | Authoritative guidance 30 |
| Hallucinations, agitation, fast heart rate (unsupervised use) Serious cases included overheating, seizures, coma and cardiac arrest. | Hallucinations 45.8%, agitation 24.1%, tachycardia 18.0% of 5,883 poison-centre cases | mild to moderate; serious cases rare Most treated and released | Observational 17 |
| Suicidal thoughts or behaviour Serious events about 4% in people with existing neuropsychiatric disorders in one review. | Higher on dosing days in the 2026 German trial (4% vs 1 to 2%) | serious Not applicable | Controlled trial 18 11 |
| Hallucinogen persisting perception disorder Very rare in trials. | One serious case in the 2026 trial; none reported in contemporary research in a large review | serious Unclear | Controlled trial 18 11 |
Liver
No liver injury from psilocybin was found in the sources read. Liver failure is the hallmark of poisoning by deadly amatoxin mushrooms, which are not psilocybin mushrooms. 4
Monitoring. Not assessed.
This is a safety connection. It is not evidence that Psilocybin mushrooms supports liver health.
Medicines and supplements 3
| With | Why it matters | Importance | Evidence | What to do |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Lithium prescription | Unknown. | 47% of 62 online reports involved seizures. | Case report Very low certainty 20 | Do not combine without a doctor; reports suggest a real seizure risk. |
| Antidepressants such as SSRIs, and MAOIs prescription | Serotonin-system overlap is expected, but no interaction study was read for this page. | Not verified. | Not read Not enough evidence 23 18 | Ask a doctor or pharmacist; do not stop any medicine on your own. Some trials had participants taper antidepressants first. |
| Alcohol, cannabis and other drugs recreational | Not studied here. | Poison-centre data link mixing substances to higher admission rates for mushroom edibles. | Observational Low certainty 15 | Mixing substances makes outcomes less predictable. |
Who should check first 5
| Situation | Advice | Evidence |
|---|---|---|
| History of psychosis, mania or bipolar disorder (or a close family history) | Excluded from major trials. Talk to a doctor. | Systematic review 11 23 |
| Heart disease or high blood pressure | Psilocybin raises blood pressure and heart rate (NIDA). | Authoritative guidance 30 |
| Pregnancy and breastfeeding | No safety data (NIDA). | Authoritative guidance 30 |
| Taking lithium | Reports of seizures. See Interactions. | Case report 20 |
| Driving or operating machinery | NIDA warns of dangerous behaviour including unsafe driving. | Authoritative guidance 30 |
Overdose, product quality and regulators
Summary. The main danger is not psilocybin itself but eating the wrong mushroom. Deadly amatoxin mushrooms, muscarine-containing mushrooms and other toxic species are mistaken for psilocybin mushrooms, and psilocybin species such as Gymnopilus are mistaken for edible ones.
Animal. Not reviewed.
Human doses studied. Not given here.
High dose or long term signals. Not reviewed.
Overdose response. Not reviewed; seek emergency care for severe effects.
Genotoxicity. Not read.
Edible products are unregulated and may contain unlisted ingredients; mushrooms of unknown origin may not be what they are sold as, and tryptamine content varies widely.
Edibles. 362 poison-centre reports; ingredients often unlisted; NIDA cites CDC reports of toxic chemicals in some psilocybin-labelled candies. 15 30
Content variability. Tryptamine content is extremely variable between genera, species, collections and individual mushrooms. 8 7
| Body | Action | Date |
|---|---|---|
| US Drug Enforcement Administration (via 21 CFR 1308.11) (United States) | Psilocybin (code 7437) and psilocyn (code 7438) are listed in Schedule I. source | 2026-10-25 |
| UK Government (GOV.UK) (United Kingdom) | The penalties page lists magic mushrooms among Class A drugs. source | 2026-10-25 |
| US Food and Drug Administration (United States) | NIDA says FDA granted Breakthrough Therapy designation to a few psilocybin formulations studied for depression. That is a development status, not an approval. source | 2026-10-25 |
When to get medical help
- Anyone who has eaten a wild mushroom and develops vomiting, diarrhea or belly pain, even if they feel better later: call poison control or emergency services at once and keep a sample if safe. Amatoxin poisoning can seem to improve before the liver fails.
- Chest pain, seizure, very high temperature, confusion that does not clear, or loss of consciousness: call your local emergency number now.
- Thoughts of suicide or self-harm after use: call your local emergency number or crisis line.
- In the US, Poison Help is 1-800-222-1222 (poison.org). Numbers elsewhere were not verified here; use your local emergency number.
If someone may be poisoned or in a crisis, contact a clinician or emergency service straight away. In the US, Poison Control is 1-800-222-1222.
General information only, not medical advice. Ask a clinician or pharmacist before use, especially with medicines, in pregnancy or with a health condition. See the Natural Remedy Safety guide.
Frequently asked questions
What are psilocybin mushrooms?
Which genera contain psilocybin?
Why is psilocybin in unrelated mushrooms?
Do all psilocybin mushrooms have the same strength?
Is a name or a photo enough to tell if a mushroom is safe?
Which mushrooms are dangerous look-alikes?
Is psilocybin from mushrooms an approved treatment?
No. NIDA says FDA granted Breakthrough Therapy designation to a few psilocybin formulations studied for depression, which is not an approval. Trials used purified psilocybin with therapy.
What does research show for depression?
Does research support taking very low amounts of mushrooms?
What are the main health risks?
Are mushroom edibles safer?
Explore by health goal
Editorial transparency
- Written by
- AlternativeMed editorial team. Research compiled with AI assistance, then checked against PubMed records.
- Medical review
- None. This page has not been reviewed by a physician or pharmacist.
- First published
- 2026-10-25
- Last substantive update
- 2026-10-25
- How we research
- We read the abstracts of 29 PubMed papers, read NIDA, the US federal drug schedule and the UK penalties page, and checked genus names in GBIF and compounds in PubChem. Certainty ratings are the compiler's own reading. Some trials were company-linked or had blinding problems; these are flagged. UN and non-US/UK regulatory entries were not verified.
- How we rate evidence
- See "How we rate evidence" in the Evidence tab.
- Independence
- No product is promoted. No affiliate links are shown. This page is information, not encouragement to use anything, and does not teach identification, growing or foraging.
Sources 34
Each source was opened and checked. Where we read only the abstract, it says so. The small numbers in the text point here.
- Bogenschutz MP, Ross S, Bhatt S et al. Percentage of Heavy Drinking Days Following Psilocybin-Assisted Psychotherapy vs Placebo in the Treatment of Adult Patients With Alcohol Use Disorder: A Randomized Clinical Trial.. JAMA Psychiatry. 2022. PMID 36001306. DOI 10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2022.2096. (abstract)
- Bradshaw AJ, Ramirez-Cruz, Awan et al. Phylogenomics of the psychoactive mushroom genus Psilocybe and evolution of the psilocybin biosynthetic gene cluster.. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2024. PMID 38194448. DOI 10.1073/pnas.2311245121. (abstract)
- Cavanna F, Muller S, de la Fuente LA et al. Microdosing with psilocybin mushrooms: a double-blind placebo-controlled study.. Transl Psychiatry. 2022. PMID 35918311. DOI 10.1038/s41398-022-02039-0. (abstract)
- Diaz JH. Amatoxin-Containing Mushroom Poisonings: Species, Toxidromes, Treatments, and Outcomes.. Wilderness Environ Med. 2018. PMID 29325729. DOI 10.1016/j.wem.2017.10.002. (abstract)
- Feldman R, Audette, Leacock et al. A 25-year analysis of Armillaria (honey mushroom) poisoning in Wisconsin.. Am J Emerg Med. 2026. PMID 42066652. DOI 10.1016/j.ajem.2026.04.033. (abstract)
- Gartz J. Occurrence of Psilocybin and Baeocystin in Fruit Bodies of Pluteus salicinus.. Planta Med. 1987. PMID 17269025. DOI 10.1055/s-2006-962710. (abstract)
- Goff R, Smith, Islam et al. Determination of psilocybin and psilocin content in multiple Psilocybe cubensis mushroom strains using liquid chromatography - tandem mass spectrometry.. Anal Chim Acta. 2024. PMID 38220293. DOI 10.1016/j.aca.2023.342161. (abstract)
- Gotvaldova K, Borovicka J, Hajkova K et al. Extensive Collection of Psychotropic Mushrooms with Determination of Their Tryptamine Alkaloids.. Int J Mol Sci. 2022. PMID 36430546. DOI 10.3390/ijms232214068. (abstract)
- Griffiths RR, Johnson MW, Carducci MA et al. Psilocybin produces substantial and sustained decreases in depression and anxiety in patients with life-threatening cancer: A randomized double-blind trial.. J Psychopharmacol. 2016. PMID 27909165. DOI 10.1177/0269881116675513. (abstract)
- He MQ, Yang, Phurbu et al. Systematic study of Panaeolus (Agaricales, Galeropsidaceae) sensu lato and psilocybin-producing traits of species from China.. IMA Fungus. 2026. PMID 41607716. DOI 10.3897/imafungus.17.167329. (abstract)
- Hinkle JT, Graziosi M, Nayak SM et al. Adverse Events in Studies of Classic Psychedelics: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis.. JAMA Psychiatry. 2024. PMID 39230883. DOI 10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2024.2546. (abstract)
- Hodgson SE, McKenzie, May et al. A comparison of the accuracy of mushroom identification applications using digital photographs.. Clin Toxicol (Phila). 2023. PMID 36794335. DOI 10.1080/15563650.2022.2162917. (abstract)
- Jensen N, Gartz J, Laatsch H. Aeruginascin, a trimethylammonium analogue of psilocybin from the hallucinogenic mushroom Inocybe aeruginascens.. Planta Med. 2006. PMID 16673333. DOI 10.1055/s-2006-931576. (abstract)
- Johnson MW, Naude, Hendricks et al. Psilocybin or Nicotine Patch for Smoking Cessation: A Pilot Randomized Clinical Trial.. JAMA Netw Open. 2026. PMID 41805956. DOI 10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2026.0972. (abstract)
- Jorgenson DM, Santos Leon, Vakkalanka et al. Psychoactive mushroom edibles: trends and toxicities reported to the United States National Poison Data System, 2023-2024.. Clin Toxicol (Phila). 2026. PMID 41493095. DOI 10.1080/15563650.2025.2599402. (abstract)
- Kosentka P, Sprague SL, Ryberg M et al. Evolution of the toxins muscarine and psilocybin in a family of mushroom-forming fungi.. PLoS One. 2013. PMID 23717644. DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0064646. (abstract)
- Leonard JB, Anderson B, Klein-Schwartz W. Does getting high hurt?. J Psychopharmacol. 2018. PMID 30182795. DOI 10.1177/0269881118793086. (abstract)
- Mertens LJ, Koslowski M, Betzler F et al. Efficacy and Safety of Psilocybin in Treatment-Resistant Major Depression: The EPISODE Randomized Clinical Trial.. JAMA Psychiatry. 2026. PMID 41848690. DOI 10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2026.0132. (abstract)
- Metaxa AM, Clarke M. Efficacy of psilocybin for treating symptoms of depression: systematic review and meta-analysis.. BMJ. 2024. PMID 38692686. DOI 10.1136/bmj-2023-078084. (abstract)
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- n/a. GBIF Backbone Taxonomy: genera Psilocybe (2526775), Panaeolus (2524401), Gymnopilus (2527854), Inocybe (2527866), Pluteus (2526826), Galerina (9570632), Amanita (6005964), retrieved 2026-10-25. n/a. 2026. (api)
