Psychedelic Therapy · Fungus
Psilocybe cyanescens
Psilocybe cyanescens Wakef. · also called Wavy cap; Blaufärbender Kahlkopf (German); Blauwwordend kaalkopje (Dutch)
Psilocybe cyanescens, the wavy cap, is a wood-rotting mushroom that contains psilocybin, which the body turns into psilocin. In one laboratory study it measured stronger and more uneven than P. cubensis. No clinical trial has tested this mushroom, it is illegal in many places, and mushrooms of this kind can be mistaken for deadly ones. A name or photo never makes a mushroom safe.
General information, not medical advice. Last substantive update · Not medically reviewed. A named clinician has not signed off on this page. How this page is made
About Psilocybe cyanescens
Psilocybe cyanescens is a wood-rotting mushroom whose main compounds are psilocybin and psilocin. Lab studies measured high but very uneven amounts. No trial has tested it in people, so there is no evidence it treats anything. Risks include fear, raised blood pressure, mental-health crises, seizure reports with lithium, and fatal mix-ups with toxic wild mushrooms.
What it is
Psilocybe cyanescens Wakef. is an accepted species in the family Hymenogastraceae. It was described in 1946 from Great Britain. People call it the wavy cap.
It belongs to a group of close relatives that differ only slightly in DNA, which makes naming hard. The fruiting body holds psilocybin, psilocin, baeocystin, norbaeocystin and a little aeruginascin.
Where it has been recorded
GBIF holds about 3,967 records: 2,518 from North America, 1,052 from Europe and few from elsewhere. Most are from the US Pacific states, British Columbia, Great Britain, Austria and Germany.
It rots wood, and many records mention wood chips or mulch. A 2022 paper says it is not native to Europe and arrived in the 20th century. Records show where it was seen, not where it is native. This page gives no guidance on finding it.
How strong it measured in the lab
In a Czech study of 13 wild fruiting bodies from 4 European collections, psilocybin ranged 2.3 to 13.8 and psilocin 0.4 to 10.0 mg per gram of dried mushroom. P. cubensis in the same study had 0.65 to 3.5 mg/g psilocybin.
Museum specimens of this species held 3.0 to 15.6 micrograms of psilocybin per mg, and they kept their compounds better over decades than P. cubensis. The authors warn that this spread is a risk of overdose. These numbers say nothing about effects or any safe amount.
How it works in the body
Psilocybin is a prodrug. The body converts it to psilocin, which activates serotonin 2A receptors. In eight volunteers effect strength tracked receptor occupancy and blood psilocin.
Psilocin peaks at about 2 hours in volunteers and has a half-life of roughly 1.4 to 3 hours. These numbers come from synthetic psilocybin, not from this mushroom.
What the clinical trials show
No trial has tested this mushroom. Trials of purified psilocybin for depression range from clearly positive to a missed main target in the 2026 German EPISODE trial. A 2024 pooled analysis found a moderate benefit with moderate risk of bias.
Blinding: a 2026 review found people and raters often guess who got a psychedelic, which can inflate effects. The psilocybin page covers other conditions.
Legal status
In the United States, psilocybin and psilocyn are Schedule I. Laws differ by country and change, and some countries treat the mushrooms themselves differently from the chemicals. Supervised medical uses exist or are being considered in a few places; check current official sources. This page is not legal advice.
At a glance
Traditional uses history, not proof
- No traditional or medicinal use of this species was found in the sources read.
Studied for research
- Depression: no trial of this mushroom; trials of purified psilocybin are mixed, insufficient for this species
- Other conditions: no study of this mushroom, insufficient
Main compounds
- Psilocybin (becomes psilocin in the body)
- Psilocin, the active form
- Baeocystin and norbaeocystin
- Aeruginascin (small amounts)
Common forms
Research links: Gotvaldová et al. 2022: tryptamines in wild mushrooms (abstract) · Bradshaw et al. 2022: DNA check of museum Psilocybe (abstract) · NIDA: Psilocybin (Magic Mushrooms) · GBIF: Psilocybe cyanescens · Research Library · Genes & Biomarkers Library
What it is and its history
- Accepted scientific name
- Psilocybe cyanescens
- Naming authority
- Wakef.
- Synonyms
- Psilocybe cyanascens Wakef. (spelling variant, GBIF synonym)
- Common names
- Wavy cap (English); Blaufärbender Kahlkopf (German); Blauwwordend kaalkopje (Dutch)
- Family or group
- Hymenogastraceae (GBIF).
- Classification
- Fungi > Basidiomycota > Agaricomycetes > Agaricales > Hymenogastraceae > Psilocybe > Psilocybe cyanescens
- Native range
- Not settled in the sources read. It was described from Great Britain in 1946 (Index Fungorum). A 2022 paper says it is not native to Europe and was introduced there in the 20th century. GBIF holds about 3,967 records: North America 2,518, Europe 1,052, Oceania 40, Africa 19, Asia 4. Most are from the US (mainly California, Washington and Oregon), Great Britain, Canada, Austria and Germany. Records show where it was seen, not where it is native.
- Habitat
- A wood-rotting fungus, called probably the best-known wood-rotting psilocybin species in the USA in a 2022 paper. In GBIF records that carry habitat notes, many mention wood, wood chips or mulch. Habitat is given only as ecology, not as guidance.
- What it looks like
- Stems: Not covered on purpose.; Fruit: Fruiting body (cap and stalk). The species is part of a group of close relatives (the P. cyanescens complex) that differ only subtly in DNA, which makes naming hard.
- Cultivation
- Not covered on purpose.
- Harvest and processing
- Not covered on purpose.
- Look-alikes and adulterants
- Name: Deadly amatoxin mushrooms (Galerina, Amanita, Lepiota) and other toxic species; Note: NIDA lists mistaking a toxic mushroom for a psilocybin one as a risk, and a review says most fatal mushroom poisonings involve amatoxins. Even specialists mislabel Psilocybe species. This page does not teach identification and no photo or name makes a mushroom safe.
- Sustainability and conservation
- Not checked; not a threatened species in the sources read.
Traditional use and history history, not clinical proof
| Tradition or era | Documented use | Source |
|---|---|---|
| Scientific description, 1946 | The species was published by Wakefield in 1946 (Transactions of the British Mycological Society 29(3): 141); the type specimen is from Great Britain. | s-indexfungorum-pcya |
| Spread to Europe | A 2022 laboratory paper says the species is not native to Europe and was introduced there in the 20th century (a claim the authors cite from earlier work; the earlier work was not read). | p36430546 |
| Traditional or medicinal use | No traditional or medicinal use of this species was found in any source read. Claims about it from popular sources are NOT verified. | s-nida-psilocybin |
Traditional use shows how it was used. It does not show that it works or is safe today.
What is inside, and how it may work
What it contains and how those compounds act in cells and animals. Laboratory and animal mechanisms are not proven effects in people.
Main compounds
| Compound | Family | Where it is concentrated | Activity studied | Level of evidence |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Psilocybin PubChem 10624 | tryptamine (prodrug) | Fruiting body 2.340 to 13.808 mg/g dry mass (13 wild European fruiting bodies, 4 collections); 3.0 to 15.6 micrograms per mg in 9 museum specimens. | A prodrug turned into psilocin in the body (human data). 20 6 1 2 | Human data |
| Psilocin PubChem 4980 | tryptamine | Fruiting body 0.409 to 10.018 mg/g dry mass (wild European); 0.22 to 5.22 micrograms per mg in museum specimens. | The active form; activates serotonin 2A receptors. 20 11 6 1 | Human data |
| Baeocystin PubChem 161359 | tryptamine | Fruiting body 0.216 to 2.852 mg/g dry mass in the wild European collections. | Effects not established from the sources read. 20 6 | Lab |
| Norbaeocystin PubChem 9795063 | tryptamine | Fruiting body 0.102 to 0.978 mg/g dry mass in the wild European collections. | Effects not established from the sources read. 20 6 | Lab |
| Aeruginascin PubChem 60208480 | tryptamine | Fruiting body 0.011 to 0.039 mg/g dry mass in the wild European collections (small). | Effects not established from the sources read. 20 6 | Lab |
Mechanisms, receptors and pathways
| Target or pathway | Gene or receptor | What was found | Level |
|---|---|---|---|
| Serotonin 2A receptor | 5-HT2A receptor (HTR2A) | In eight volunteers given synthetic psilocybin, receptor occupancy reached 72% and effect intensity tracked occupancy and blood psilocin, supporting 5-HT2A activation as a key driver of the psychedelic experience. This was not tested with this mushroom. 11 | Human data |
| Default mode network | Brain network | NIDA says studies suggest psilocybin can temporarily disrupt communication among regions in this network. 18 | Authoritative guidance |
Absorption, metabolism and elimination
- Absorption
- Data are from synthetic psilocybin, not this mushroom. Taken by mouth, psilocybin is converted to psilocin; no psilocybin was found in blood or urine in 12 adults.
- Distribution
- Not read.
- Metabolism
- Psilocin is broken down in the body in two metabolic steps (review).
- Elimination
- Psilocin half-life about 3 hours (SD 1.1) in one study; 1.4 to 1.8 hours in another; peak at about 2 hours.
- Bioavailability
- Not established for whole mushrooms of this species.
Isolated compounds versus whole extracts
Almost all human research used purified synthetic psilocybin. This mushroom holds several other tryptamines and varies widely in strength, so its effects may differ. The Czech authors say the varied mix in wild mushrooms could change the medical effect compared with pure psilocybin and complicates data. No human study of the whole mushroom of this species exists.
Nutritional composition
Not a food or nutrient and has no nutritional claim.
2 not enough evidence
What was looked at
The 2 benefits and uses checked for Psilocybe cyanescens, each with how strong the evidence is. Tap one to open it.
- Depression and mood (research on psilocybin, not on this mushroom)Not enough evidence
- Other conditions (addiction, cancer distress, pain, headache)Not enough evidence
Lab markers tracked in the studies
Depression rating scores (clinician interviews and questionnaires)
What is Psilocybe cyanescens good for?
The uses people ask about and how strong the human evidence is. For this mushroom there is none; the research is on purified psilocybin in supervised clinics.
Benefits, one by one
Each card is a research question, not a promise. Tap a goal to filter. Open a card to see the studies, doses and limits.
Depression and mood (research on psilocybin, not on this mushroom)
Not enough evidenceNo trial has tested Psilocybe cyanescens in people. Trials of purified psilocybin for depression are mixed, and nobody can say what this wild mushroom would do.
4 studiesNot given. The trials used a purified synthetic drug in clinic protoc…
Studies, doses and limits
What the trials found
Everything below is about synthetic psilocybin, a purified drug given in supervised clinical trials. None of it tests Psilocybe cyanescens, and no trial of this mushroom in people was found. Trials compared supervised sessions with a very low dose, a niacin or nicotinamide placebo, a waiting list or an antidepressant.
Results
A 2024 meta-analysis of seven trials (436 people) found a pooled benefit of g 0.66 (95% CI 0.46 to 0.86), with moderate risk of bias. A 2026 German trial in treatment-resistant depression (144 adults) missed its main target: response was 17.0% with the high dose, 12.5% with the low dose and 10.6% with placebo (P=.19). A 2026 review found that people in psychedelic trials, and the staff rating them, often guess who got the drug, which can inflate benefit.
Effect sizes as reported
Pooled effect size about 0.66 (95% CI 0.46 to 0.86) for synthetic psilocybin in one meta-analysis; the large 2026 trial was not significant on its main measure.
Why this rating
For this species there is no human evidence at all. For purified psilocybin the evidence is low: small trials, short follow-up, widespread unblinding, and one large 2026 trial that missed its main test.
Form and dose studied
Not given. The trials used a purified synthetic drug in clinic protocols with trained therapists. Wild mushrooms are not a substitute: their strength varies very widely.
Who was studied
Adults screened and monitored in clinics; people with psychosis or mania history were generally excluded.
Limits
Results from purified psilocybin cannot be carried over to a wild mushroom of unknown strength that also contains other tryptamines.
Why researchers looked
This species contains psilocybin and psilocin, the compounds studied for depression. Interest in it is chemical (it measured high in the lab), not clinical.
Traditional use
No traditional or medicinal use of this species was found in the sources read.
Proposed mechanism Human pet imaging
Psilocin, the active form of psilocybin, switches on serotonin 2A receptors in the brain. This is thought to drive the psychedelic experience (human PET study of synthetic psilocybin). How that relates to any lasting benefit is not settled.
A proposed mechanism does not show that the effect happens in people.
Even in clinics adverse events are common. See the Safety tab, which also covers look-alike mushroom poisoning.
Other conditions (addiction, cancer distress, pain, headache)
Not enough evidenceNo study has tested this mushroom for any other condition. Studies of other conditions used purified psilocybin; see the psilocybin page.
0 studiesNot given.
Studies, doses and limits
Results
Nothing to report for this species. The psilocybin page covers what trials of the purified drug found for depression, cancer distress, alcohol and smoking.
Why this rating
No human, animal or laboratory-effect studies of this species were found.
Form and dose studied
Not given.
Limits
Absence of studies is not evidence of safety or benefit.
Why researchers looked
Not studied for this species.
Traditional use
No traditional or medicinal use of this species was found in the sources read.
Proposed mechanism None
Not applicable. No species-specific research was found.
A proposed mechanism does not show that the effect happens in people.
See the Safety tab.
Connections to the rest of health
How Psilocybe cyanescens connects to the rest of our health knowledge graph. Every link says what kind of connection it is. A safety link (for example to the liver) is a warning, not a benefit. A study that merely mentions a topic never creates a benefit link.
Explore every connection: goals, body systems, organs, symptoms, genes
B. Body systems
| Connected to | Kind of connection | Evidence status | Context | Studies |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Nervous System | Biological association | Not enough evidence | Studied for: Depression and mood (research on psilocybin, not on this mushroom) Studied for: Other conditions (addiction, cancer distress, pain, headache) | 13 12 15 11 |
I. Biomarkers
| Connected to | Kind of connection | Evidence status | Context | Studies |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Depression rating scores (clinician interviews and questionnaires) | Biological association | Not enough evidence | Measured in trials: lowered. A lab change is not the same as a health benefit. | 13 12 |
J. Genes, receptors and enzymes
| Connected to | Kind of connection | Evidence status | Context | Studies |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| HTR2A (serotonin 2A receptor) | Preliminary mechanism | Human | Main receptor target of psilocin. | 11 |
L. Active compounds
| Connected to | Kind of connection | Evidence status | Context | Studies |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Psilocybin | Biological association | Human | A prodrug turned into psilocin in the body (human data). Preparation or compound: Fruiting body |
20 6 1 2 |
| Psilocin | Biological association | Human | The active form; activates serotonin 2A receptors. Preparation or compound: Fruiting body |
20 11 6 1 |
| Baeocystin | Biological association | Lab | Effects not established from the sources read. Preparation or compound: Fruiting body |
20 6 |
| Norbaeocystin | Biological association | Lab | Effects not established from the sources read. Preparation or compound: Fruiting body |
20 6 |
| Aeruginascin | Biological association | Lab | Effects not established from the sources read. Preparation or compound: Fruiting body |
20 6 |
Each connection is stored with the ingredient, the connected record, the kind of connection, the evidence status, the supporting studies, the preparation or compound involved, and a review date (last reviewed October 25, 2026).
Evidence at a glance: what changed in 1 lab markers
Tap a number to show only those markers. Counts are markers, not people.
The evidence
The research centre for Psilocybe cyanescens. Every record here was checked against PubMed or the publisher's page; we never list a study we have not verified.
Evidence by outcome
Bars show how many studies we found for each outcome, not how well it works. People are added up across trials only (reviews are not added, to avoid double counting).
How we rate evidence
High certainty
Several well-run trials or reviews agree; further research is unlikely to change the picture much.
Moderate certainty
Good trials point the same way, but some doubt remains.
Low certainty
Small, short or inconsistent trials. The finding could change with better research.
Very low certainty
Very little or very weak human data. Treat as a possibility only.
Mixed findings
Trials or reviews disagree with each other.
Not enough evidence
Not enough human research to say either way.
Evidence against
Good research found no benefit, or found harm.
We take the reviewers' own risk-of-bias and GRADE statements where they exist, and otherwise judge from study size, design, consistency, directness and whether a product matches what is sold. Many publications do not make evidence high. Method note: We read the abstracts of the PubMed papers cited, read the full text of two open-access laboratory papers for species-specific numbers, read NIDA and the US federal drug schedule, and checked the name in GBIF and Index Fungorum and compounds in PubChem. Certainty ratings are the compiler's own reading. One museum study has an author with company interests in psilocybin; this is flagged. UN and Australian regulatory entries were not verified with the regulators.
Study library: every study we checked 22
| Study | Design | People | Product, dose, length | Result |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Bradshaw 2022 DNA Authentication and Chemical Analysis of Psilocybe Mushrooms Reveal Widespread Misdeterminations in Fungaria and Inconsistencies in Metabolites. Appl Environ Microbiol · PMID 36445079 · DOI |
Lab analysis lab |
94 94 museum (fungarium) Psilocybe specimens of 18 species; chemistry on 25 specimens of P. cubensis, P. cyanescens and P. semilanceata (9 of P. cyanescens, aged 5 to 48 years) |
DNA barcoding and tryptamine measurement in dried museum specimens |
The authors found the species names on many museum specimens unreliable, even at genus level. One specimen labelled P. cyanescens was another species (P. allenii), and public DNA sequences labelled P. cyanescens fell into three groups, two of them other genera (Panaeolus and Deconica). In P. cyanescens museum specimens psilocybin ranged 3.0 to 15.6 and psilocin 0.22 to 5.22 micrograms per mg dry weight. P. cyanescens kept its compounds better over decades than P. cubensis, and one specimen of about 40 years still held measurable amounts. Names are unreliable; content varies and decays Methods, limits and fundingOutcomes: Correct species name by DNA; psilocybin and psilocin content over time Limitations: Museum specimens of mixed age and storage; small numbers per species. Read from the open-access full text (PMC9764976). Funding and conflicts: One author (Stamets) is CEO of a mushroom company and co-founder of a psychedelic company with patents on psilocybin; the paper declares this conflict. Read: full-text (open access, PMC9764976) |
| Brown 2017 Pharmacokinetics of Escalating Doses of Oral Psilocybin in Healthy Adults. Clin Pharmacokinet · PMID 28353056 · DOI |
Controlled clinical trial |
12 12 healthy adults |
Oral synthetic psilocybin, escalating Fixed protocol doses; not reproduced here See results · vs See results |
No psilocybin was found in blood or urine; psilocin was the circulating form; elimination half-life of psilocin about 3 hours (SD 1.1). Psilocin is the active form Methods, limits and fundingOutcomes: Blood and urine psilocin Limitations: Small. Funding and conflicts: Non-US government research support listed Read: abstract |
| Diaz 2018 Amatoxin-Containing Mushroom Poisonings: Species, Toxidromes, Treatments, and Outcomes. Wilderness Environ Med · PMID 29325729 · DOI |
Review |
Review of amatoxin mushroom poisonings | Amanita, Lepiota and Galerina mushrooms Fixed protocol doses; not reproduced here See results · vs See results |
Most mushroom poisonings are caused by unknown mushrooms, and most fatal ones by amatoxin-containing mushrooms. Galerina marginata is the most frequent fatal Galerina. Treatment is mainly supportive and some patients need a liver transplant. Deadly poisonings come mostly from unidentified wild mushrooms Methods, limits and fundingOutcomes: Epidemiology and outcomes Limitations: Narrative review. Funding and conflicts: Not stated in the abstract Read: abstract |
| Freitas 2025 The safety of psilocybin-assisted psychotherapy: A systematic review. Aust N Z J Psychiatry · PMID 39670342 · DOI |
Systematic review |
24 articles from psilocybin-assisted psychotherapy trials | Psilocybin-assisted psychotherapy Fixed protocol doses; not reproduced here See results · vs See results |
Common events were raised blood pressure, headache, nausea, vomiting, fatigue and anxiety. Suicidal thoughts and behaviour were infrequent, mostly in people with prior suicidal history. No deaths were attributed to psilocybin. The authors urge caution because safety data are preliminary and varied. Generally supported, preliminary Methods, limits and fundingOutcomes: Adverse events Limitations: Heterogeneous reporting. Funding and conflicts: Non-US government research support listed Read: abstract |
| Goodwin 2022 Single-Dose Psilocybin for a Treatment-Resistant Episode of Major Depression. N Engl J Med · PMID 36322843 · DOI |
Controlled trial |
233 Adults with treatment-resistant depression |
A company's proprietary synthetic psilocybin, single session, with psychological support, versus a very low control dose Fixed protocol doses; not reproduced here See results · vs See results |
Mean change was -12.0 in the high-dose group versus -5.4 for the control dose (difference -6.6, 95% CI -10.2 to -2.9; P<0.001). The middle dose did not differ significantly. The benefit at week 3 was not shown to be sustained at 12 weeks. Adverse events occurred in 77% of participants, and suicidal thoughts or self-injury occurred in all dose groups. Better score at 3 weeks only for the high dose (-10.2 to -2.9) Methods, limits and fundingOutcomes: Change in MADRS depression score from baseline to week 3 Limitations: Short follow-up, functional unblinding likely, company-sponsored. Funding and conflicts: Funded by COMPASS Pathfinder (a company developing psilocybin) Registration: NCT03775200 Read: abstract |
| Gotvaldová 2022 Extensive Collection of Psychotropic Mushrooms with Determination of Their Tryptamine Alkaloids. Int J Mol Sci · PMID 36430546 · DOI |
Lab analysis lab |
226 226 wild-collected fruiting bodies from 82 collections of about 30 species; for P. cyanescens, 13 fruiting bodies from 4 European collections |
Five tryptamines measured by UHPLC-MS/MS in dried whole fruiting bodies |
For P. cyanescens: psilocybin 2.340 to 13.808, psilocin 0.409 to 10.018, baeocystin 0.216 to 2.852, norbaeocystin 0.102 to 0.978, aeruginascin 0.011 to 0.039 mg/g dry mass. The authors call it one of the most potent species in their set. In the same table P. cubensis psilocybin ranged 0.651 to 3.509 mg/g. The authors say concentrations in mushrooms are extremely variable, which carries an obvious risk of overdose, and that the mix of tryptamines could change effects compared with pure psilocybin. They note P. cyanescens is not native to Europe, where it was introduced in the 20th century. High and very variable content Methods, limits and fundingOutcomes: Concentrations of psilocybin, psilocin, baeocystin, norbaeocystin and aeruginascin (mg per g dry mass) Limitations: Laboratory measurement of a few collections; says nothing about effects or safe amounts. Numbers for P. cyanescens were read from the open-access full text (Table 1), not only the abstract. Funding and conflicts: Czech Ministry of Health grant and institutional support; authors declare no conflict of interest. Read: full-text (open access, PMC9693126) |
| Hinkle 2024 Adverse Events in Studies of Classic Psychedelics: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. JAMA Psychiatry · PMID 39230883 · DOI |
Meta-analysis |
3504 |
Classic psychedelics in clinical or research settings Fixed protocol doses; not reproduced here See results · vs See results |
Serious events were reported for no healthy participants and about 4% of people with existing neuropsychiatric disorders (worsening depression, suicidal behaviour, psychosis, convulsions). No deaths by suicide, persistent psychosis or hallucinogen persisting perception disorder were reported in contemporary research settings. Monitoring quality varied: of 68 studies since 2005, only 16 used systematic adverse-event assessment. Generally well tolerated in research settings, with uneven monitoring Methods, limits and fundingOutcomes: Serious and non-serious adverse events Limitations: Research settings only, with screening and support; says little about unsupervised use. Funding and conflicts: Not stated in the abstract Read: abstract |
| Holze 2023 Pharmacokinetics and Pharmacodynamics of Oral Psilocybin Administration in Healthy Participants. Clin Pharmacol Ther · PMID 36507738 · DOI |
Pk study |
79 28, 23 and 28 healthy participants in three groups |
Oral synthetic psilocybin Fixed protocol doses; not reproduced here See results · vs See results |
Peak psilocin came at about 2 hours; half-lives were 1.4 to 1.8 hours; subjective effects lasted about 5.5 to 6.4 hours and were dose-dependent. Timing of effects in healthy volunteers Methods, limits and fundingOutcomes: Plasma psilocin and subjective effects Limitations: Healthy volunteers, synthetic psilocybin. Funding and conflicts: Non-US government research support listed Read: abstract |
| Jorgenson 2026 Psychoactive mushroom edibles: trends and toxicities reported to the United States National Poison Data System, 2023-2024. Clin Toxicol (Phila) · PMID 41493095 · DOI |
Observational |
362 362 poison-centre exposures to mushroom edibles (Amanita muscaria, psilocybin or unspecified) |
Unregulated psychoactive mushroom edibles Fixed protocol doses; not reproduced here See results · vs See results |
Polysubstance exposure, confusion and CNS depression were linked to admission and worse toxicity. No deaths were reported. The authors call the effects unpredictable and the products unregulated with unlisted ingredients. Unpredictable effects from edibles Methods, limits and fundingOutcomes: Hospital admission, severity Limitations: Reported cases only; product contents unknown. Funding and conflicts: Not stated in the abstract Read: abstract |
| Leonard 2018 Does getting high hurt? J Psychopharmacol · PMID 30182795 · DOI |
Observational |
5883 5,883 single-substance psilocybin-mushroom exposures reported to US poison centres |
Psilocybin-containing mushrooms (unsupervised use) Fixed protocol doses; not reproduced here See results · vs See results |
Most patients were 13 to 29 years old and male. Common effects were hallucinations (45.8%), agitation (24.1%) and fast heart rate (18.0%). Serious effects were infrequent but included overheating, seizures, coma and cardiac arrest. Most were treated and released from the emergency department. Mostly mild or moderate, with rare serious cases Methods, limits and fundingOutcomes: Clinical effects and outcomes Limitations: Reported cases only; mushroom type and amount unconfirmed. Funding and conflicts: Not stated in the abstract Read: abstract |
| Madsen 2019 Psychedelic effects of psilocybin correlate with serotonin 2A receptor occupancy and plasma psilocin levels. Neuropsychopharmacology · PMID 30685771 · DOI |
Pet imaging |
8 Eight healthy volunteers |
Oral psilocybin with PET brain imaging Fixed protocol doses; not reproduced here See results · vs See results |
Dose-related receptor occupancy up to 72%; effect intensity tracked occupancy and blood psilocin levels, supporting 5-HT2A receptor activation as a key driver of the experience. Mechanism in humans Methods, limits and fundingOutcomes: 5-HT2A receptor occupancy and effect intensity Limitations: Very small. Funding and conflicts: Non-US government research support listed Read: abstract |
| Mertens 2026 Efficacy and Safety of Psilocybin in Treatment-Resistant Major Depression: The EPISODE Randomized Clinical Trial. JAMA Psychiatry · PMID 41848690 · DOI |
Controlled trial |
144 Adults aged 25 to 65 with treatment-resistant depression, off antidepressants (Germany) |
Synthetic psilocybin versus an active placebo (nicotinamide), with psychotherapy Fixed protocol doses; not reproduced here See results · vs See results |
The main test was not significant: response was 17.0% with the higher psilocybin dose, 12.5% with the lower and 10.6% with placebo (adjusted OR 1.73, 95% CI 0.53 to 6.23; P=.19). Secondary measures showed a possibly meaningful effect. Suicidal thoughts on dosing days were more often reported with the higher dose (4% vs 1-2%). Two serious adverse reactions followed the higher dose, including one case of hallucinogen persisting perception disorder. Primary outcome not met (0.53 to 6.23) Methods, limits and fundingOutcomes: Treatment response (50% or more drop on HAMD17) at week 6 Limitations: Exploratory secondary results only; small groups. Funding and conflicts: Not stated in the abstract Read: abstract |
| Metaxa 2024 Efficacy of psilocybin for treating symptoms of depression: systematic review and meta-analysis. BMJ · PMID 38692686 · DOI |
Meta-analysis |
436 Seven of nine randomised trials of psilocybin for depression |
Psilocybin (synthetic) versus placebo or non-psychoactive comparators Fixed protocol doses; not reproduced here See results · vs See results |
Pooled benefit favoured psilocybin (Hedges g 0.66, 95% CI 0.46 to 0.86). All studies had moderate risk of bias. Moderate-size pooled benefit, moderate risk of bias (0.46 to 0.86) Methods, limits and fundingOutcomes: Change in depression scores Limitations: Few small trials; unblinding and expectation not resolved. Funding and conflicts: Not stated in the abstract Read: abstract |
| Nayak 2021 Classic Psychedelic Coadministration with Lithium, but Not Lamotrigine, is Associated with Seizures: An Analysis of Online Psychedelic Experience Reports. Pharmacopsychiatry · PMID 34348413 · DOI |
Case report series |
Online experience reports (Erowid, Shroomery, Reddit) | Classic psychedelics taken with mood stabilisers Fixed protocol doses; not reproduced here See results · vs See results |
In 62 lithium plus psychedelic reports, 47% involved seizures and 39% involved medical attention; none of 34 lamotrigine reports did. The authors provisionally conclude a significant seizure risk with lithium. Possible seizure risk with lithium Methods, limits and fundingOutcomes: Seizures and medical attention Limitations: Self-selected anonymous online reports, not verified, not a trial. Funding and conflicts: Not stated in the abstract Read: abstract |
| Orsini 2026 Blinding Integrity in Psychedelic Randomized Clinical Trials: A Systematic Review. JAMA Psychiatry · PMID 41984443 · DOI |
Systematic review |
112 |
Various psychedelics (11 psilocybin trials) Fixed protocol doses; not reproduced here See results · vs See results |
Only 29.5% of trials tested blinding. Functional unblinding is widespread Methods, limits and fundingOutcomes: How often blinding was tested and failed Limitations: Review of trial reporting, not of efficacy. Funding and conflicts: Not stated in the abstract Read: abstract |
| Raison 2023 Single-Dose Psilocybin Treatment for Major Depressive Disorder: A Randomized Clinical Trial. JAMA · PMID 37651119 · DOI |
Controlled trial |
104 Adults aged 21 to 65 with major depression for 60+ days (11 US sites) |
Synthetic psilocybin single dose versus a niacin placebo, with psychological support Fixed protocol doses; not reproduced here See results · vs See results |
Psilocybin lowered MADRS scores more than niacin (mean difference -12.3, 95% CI -17.5 to -7.2; P<.001 at day 43). More people had sustained response, but not remission. There were no serious treatment-related adverse events, but psilocybin had more adverse events overall and more severe ones. Lower depression score than placebo at 6 weeks (-17.5 to -7.2) Methods, limits and fundingOutcomes: Change in MADRS depression score from baseline to day 43 Limitations: Niacin is not an inert placebo but people can usually still tell which they got; people with psychosis or mania history were excluded. Funding and conflicts: Funding source not stated in the abstract Read: abstract |
| Thaoboonruang 2025 Pharmacokinetics of Psilocybin, a Tryptamine Alkaloid in Magic Mushroom (Psilocybe cubensis): A Systematic Review. J Psychoactive Drugs · PMID 39257234 · DOI |
Systematic review |
20 studies in vitro, animal and human | Psilocybin and psilocin Fixed protocol doses; not reproduced here See results · vs See results |
Psilocybin is a prodrug turned into psilocin by alkaline phosphatase; psilocin has a half-life of 2 to 3 hours; knowledge gaps remain. Summary of kinetics Methods, limits and fundingOutcomes: Pharmacokinetics Limitations: Review. Funding and conflicts: Non-US government research support listed Read: abstract |
| n/a 2026 NIDA: Psilocybin (Magic Mushrooms) (page read 2026-10-25) n/a · Source |
Authoritative guidance n/a |
n/a | n/a |
NIDA says psilocybin has low toxicity, raises blood pressure and heart rate, can cause fear or panic and risky behaviour, and that misidentifying mushrooms and taking a toxic one is a risk. It says there is no data on safety in pregnancy, that research has not established that microdosing is safe or effective, and that FDA granted Breakthrough Therapy designation to a few psilocybin formulations being studied for depression. It notes use in Central America for healing and ritual dating back to evidence from about 3000 B.C. Methods, limits and fundingOutcomes: NIDA says psilocybin has low toxicity, raises blood pressure and heart rate, can cause fear or panic and risky behaviour, and that misidentifying mushrooms and taking a toxic one is a risk. It says there is no data on safety in pregnancy, that research has not established that microdosing is safe or effective, and that FDA granted Breakthrough Therapy designation to a few psilocybin formulations being studied for depression. It notes use in Central America for healing and ritual dating back to evidence from about 3000 B.C. Limitations: Regulator-style fact page, not a trial; the date claim is NIDA's own. Read: full-text |
| n/a 2026 US eCFR: 21 CFR 1308.11 Schedule I (version dated 2026-10-20) n/a · Source |
Regulation n/a |
n/a | n/a |
Schedule I hallucinogenic substances list includes Psilocybin (code 7437) and Psilocyn (code 7438). Methods, limits and fundingOutcomes: Schedule I hallucinogenic substances list includes Psilocybin (code 7437) and Psilocyn (code 7438). Limitations: Lists the chemicals; it does not discuss the mushrooms or any state-level changes. Read: full-text |
| n/a 2026 PubChem: Psilocybin (CID 10624), psilocin (CID 4980), baeocystin (CID 161359), norbaeocystin (CID 9795063), aeruginascin (CID 60208480) n/a · Source |
Database n/a |
n/a | n/a |
Psilocybin C12H17N2O4P, molecular weight 284.25; psilocin C12H16N2O, 204.27. Methods, limits and fundingOutcomes: Psilocybin C12H17N2O4P, molecular weight 284.25; psilocin C12H16N2O, 204.27. Limitations: Chemical database, not a safety source. Read: api |
| n/a 2026 GBIF Backbone Taxonomy: Psilocybe cyanescens Wakef. (key 5242465), retrieved 2026-10-25 n/a · Source |
Database n/a |
n/a | n/a |
Accepted species, family Hymenogastraceae, order Agaricales, phylum Basidiomycota; published in Trans. Br. Mycol. Soc. 29(3): 141 (1946); one synonym (Psilocybe cyanascens Wakef.). About 3,967 occurrence records: North America 2,518, Europe 1,052, Oceania 40, Africa 19, Asia 4. Most records are from the US (2,435), Great Britain (466), Canada (160), Austria (159), Germany (141), Netherlands (75) and Switzerland (71). In US/Canada the most records are from California, Washington, Oregon and British Columbia. In the first 1,200 records, 319 had habitat or substrate notes; 79 of them mention wood, 31 wood chips and 36 mulch. Methods, limits and fundingOutcomes: Accepted species, family Hymenogastraceae, order Agaricales, phylum Basidiomycota; published in Trans. Br. Mycol. Soc. 29(3): 141 (1946); one synonym (Psilocybe cyanascens Wakef.). About 3,967 occurrence records: North America 2,518, Europe 1,052, Oceania 40, Africa 19, Asia 4. Most records are from the US (2,435), Great Britain (466), Canada (160), Austria (159), Germany (141), Netherlands (75) and Switzerland (71). In US/Canada the most records are from California, Washington, Oregon and British Columbia. In the first 1,200 records, 319 had habitat or substrate notes; 79 of them mention wood, 31 wood chips and 36 mulch. Limitations: GBIF records show where it has been recorded and by whom, not where it is native or how common it is. Habitat counts come from free-text notes in the first 1,200 records only. Read: api |
| n/a 2026 Index Fungorum: Psilocybe cyanescens Wakef., Index of Fungi 1: 170 (retrieved 2026-10-25) n/a · Source |
Database n/a |
n/a | n/a |
Name registered as Psilocybe cyanescens Wakef., published 1946 in Trans. Br. Mycol. Soc. 29(3): 141. Holotype K(M) 63976, from Great Britain, recorded as growing on ground. Current name is the same name. Methods, limits and fundingOutcomes: Name registered as Psilocybe cyanescens Wakef., published 1946 in Trans. Br. Mycol. Soc. 29(3): 141. Holotype K(M) 63976, from Great Britain, recorded as growing on ground. Current name is the same name. Limitations: Nomenclature database; says nothing about chemistry or safety. Read: api |
What we do not know yet
- No human, animal-behaviour or poisoning-case study of this species was found.
- Published strength figures come from a handful of collections and specimens.
- Functional unblinding limits how far benefits of purified psilocybin can be trusted.
- Long-term and unsupervised-use safety is poorly measured.
- Native range and conservation were not settled in a source.
How new research is added
New studies go to a review queue and a person reads each before any rating changes.
Lab markers
What changed in blood or saliva tests during trials. A changed number is not the same as feeling or being healthier, and we give no "normal ranges".
Other 1
Depression rating scores (clinician interviews and questionnaires)
Lowered in trials
Standard interviews or questionnaires that turn depression symptoms into a score. Lower means fewer symptoms.
Not enough evidenceResults and what it means
Why it was measured
They are the main way trials judge whether a depression treatment works.
Statistical vs. clinical meaning
These scores come from purified psilocybin, not from this mushroom. Score changes can be real yet inflated by expectation when people know they got a psychedelic.
Safety implication
See the Safety tab.
| Study | Result | People | Product |
|---|---|---|---|
| 13 | Pooled lower depression scores than comparison treatments (Hedges g 0.66, 95% CI 0.46 to 0.86). | 436 adults in seven randomised trials | Synthetic psilocybin versus placebo or non-psychoactive drugs |
| 12 | Response (50% score drop) was 17.0% vs 10.6% on placebo; not significant (P=.19). | 144 adults with treatment-resistant depression | Synthetic psilocybin versus nicotinamide placebo |
Safety
What studies and official sources say about side effects, medicines and who should check first. Each point shows what kind of evidence it comes from.
Main points to know 11
- Deadly mushrooms can be mistaken for this one, and even experts get the name wrong. Most mushroom poisonings come from unidentified wild mushrooms, and most deaths come from mushrooms that contain amatoxins (found in Amanita, Lepiota and Galerina species). NIDA lists mistaking a toxic mushroom for a psilocybin one as a risk. Deadly poisoning can look like a mild stomach upset at first and then cause liver failure days later. Naming this species is hard even for specialists: a 2022 museum study found many specimens carried the wrong Psilocybe name, including one labelled P. cyanescens that was another species, and public DNA records labelled P. cyanescens that belonged to other genera. A photo, a name or an app does not make any mushroom safe. This page does not teach identification. Review 3 18 1
- Strong and very uneven: one mushroom can differ greatly from the next. In a Czech laboratory study of wild European collections, this species was one of the most potent measured, with psilocybin from 2.3 to 13.8 and psilocin from 0.4 to 10.0 mg per gram of dried mushroom across 13 fruiting bodies. P. cubensis in the same study ranged 0.65 to 3.5 mg/g psilocybin. The authors call the huge variation a risk of overdose. A museum study found a similar spread. High and unpredictable content makes the experience harder to predict, which is a danger, not a feature. Lab analysis 6 1
- Psychosis, mania, bipolar disorder and serious mental illness. Clinical trials excluded people with a history of psychosis or mania. Serious events in research settings included worsening depression, suicidal behaviour and psychosis in people with existing neuropsychiatric conditions. NIDA says mental-health problems are more likely with use outside clinical settings. Systematic review 7 18
- Lithium and seizures. In 62 online reports of lithium combined with a classic psychedelic, 47% involved seizures. These are anonymous, unverified reports, not a trial, but the authors call the seizure risk significant. Case report 14
- Fear, panic and risky behaviour. NIDA says the experience can be frightening and can lead to dangerous behaviour such as unsafe driving or walking into traffic. In US poison-centre data on psilocybin mushrooms (species not stated), hallucinations, agitation and fast heart rate were most common; serious effects (overheating, seizures, coma, cardiac arrest) were infrequent but did occur. Observational 18 10
- Heart and blood pressure. Psilocybin typically raises blood pressure and heart rate, which NIDA says may be dangerous for people with heart conditions. Raised blood pressure was among the most common events in clinical trials. Authoritative guidance 18 4
- Even in clinics, adverse events are common. In a company-sponsored trial 77% of participants had an adverse event, and suicidal thoughts or self-injury happened in all dose groups. In the 2026 German trial, suicidal thoughts on dosing days were reported more often with the higher dose, and one serious reaction was hallucinogen persisting perception disorder. A large review found no deaths by suicide or persistent psychosis in contemporary research settings but said monitoring was uneven. Controlled trial 5 12 7
- No safety study of this species exists. No clinical trial and no poison-centre or case report that names Psilocybe cyanescens was found. Safety facts here come from psilocybin in general, so the real risks of this species, which is measured as stronger than many, may be larger than they look. Gap 10 6
- Edibles and look-alike products. US poison centres received 362 reports of mushroom edibles in 2023-2024. Effects were unpredictable, ingredients were often unlisted, and mixing substances raised the chance of admission. NIDA cites CDC reports that some candies marketed as psilocybin products contained toxic chemicals and caused severe illness. Observational 9 18
- Pregnancy. NIDA says there is no data on the safety of psilocybin in pregnancy. People should ask their health provider before taking any drug in pregnancy. Authoritative guidance 18
- Legal status. Psilocybin and psilocyn are Schedule I controlled substances in the United States. Laws differ by country and some places have changed rules for supervised uses. Laws change; check a current official source. Regulation 19
Side effects 6
| Effect | How often | Severity and recovery | Evidence |
|---|---|---|---|
| Headache, nausea, vomiting, fatigue, dizziness | Among the most common events in trials; no single rate used | mild to moderate Usually short-lived | Systematic review 4 7 |
| Raised blood pressure and heart rate NIDA warns about heart conditions. | Common in trials | mild to moderate; risky with heart disease Usually while effects last | Systematic review 4 18 |
| Anxiety, fear, panic, paranoia ("bad trip") More likely outside supervised settings. | Not established | moderate Usually resolves | Authoritative guidance 18 |
| Suicidal thoughts or behaviour Mostly in people with prior suicidal history in one review. | Infrequent; higher on dosing days with the high dose in the 2026 German trial (4% vs 1 to 2%) | serious Not applicable | Controlled trial 12 5 4 |
| Hallucinogen persisting perception disorder Very rare in trials; reports outside trials exist. | One serious case in the 2026 trial; none reported in contemporary research in a large review | serious Unclear | Controlled trial 12 7 |
| Hallucinations, agitation, fast heart rate (unsupervised use) Poison-centre cases covered psilocybin-containing mushrooms in general, not this species. Serious cases included overheating, seizures, coma and cardiac arrest. | Hallucinations 45.8%, agitation 24.1%, tachycardia 18.0% of 5,883 poison-centre cases | mild to moderate; serious cases rare Most treated and released | Observational 10 |
Liver
No liver injury from psilocybin was found in the sources read. Liver failure is the hallmark of poisoning by deadly amatoxin mushrooms, which are not psilocybin mushrooms. 3
Monitoring. Not assessed.
This is a safety connection. It is not evidence that Psilocybe cyanescens supports liver health.
Medicines and supplements 3
| With | Why it matters | Importance | Evidence | What to do |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Lithium prescription | Unknown. | 47% of 62 online reports involved seizures. | Case report Very low certainty 14 | Do not combine without a doctor; reports suggest a real seizure risk. |
| Antidepressants such as SSRIs, and MAOIs prescription | Serotonin-system overlap is expected, but no interaction study was read for this page. | Not verified. | Not read Not enough evidence 16 12 | Ask a doctor or pharmacist; do not stop any medicine on your own. Some trials had participants taper antidepressants first. |
| Alcohol, cannabis and other drugs recreational | Not studied here. | Poison-centre data link polysubstance exposure to higher admission rates for mushroom edibles. | Observational Low certainty 9 | Mixing substances makes outcomes less predictable. |
Who should check first 5
| Situation | Advice | Evidence |
|---|---|---|
| History of psychosis, mania or bipolar disorder (or a close family history) | Excluded from major trials. Talk to a doctor. Serious events including psychosis occurred in people with existing conditions in research. | Systematic review 7 16 |
| Heart disease or high blood pressure | Psilocybin raises blood pressure and heart rate (NIDA). | Authoritative guidance 18 |
| Pregnancy and breastfeeding | No safety data (NIDA). | Authoritative guidance 18 |
| Taking lithium | Reports of seizures. See Interactions. | Case report 14 |
| Driving or operating machinery | NIDA warns of dangerous behaviour including unsafe driving. | Authoritative guidance 18 |
Overdose, product quality and regulators
Summary. NIDA describes psilocybin itself as having low toxicity, meaning breathing failure or heart attack are unlikely, but it says real health risks exist. The largest danger to a person who picks or is handed a wild mushroom is eating the wrong species. No toxicity study of Psilocybe cyanescens was found.
Animal. Not found for this species.
Human doses studied. Not given here.
High dose or long term signals. Not reviewed.
Overdose response. Not reviewed; seek emergency care for severe effects.
Genotoxicity. Not read.
Edible products are unregulated and may contain unlisted ingredients; mushrooms of unknown origin may not be what they are sold as. Content of the active compounds also varies widely.
Edibles. 362 poison-centre reports, ingredients often unlisted; NIDA cites CDC reports of toxic chemicals in some psilocybin-labelled candies. 9 18
Content variability. In this species, psilocybin ranged 2.3 to 13.8 mg/g across 13 wild fruiting bodies; museum specimens ranged 3.0 to 15.6 micrograms per mg. Names on specimens were often wrong. 6 1
| Body | Action | Date |
|---|---|---|
| US Drug Enforcement Administration (via 21 CFR 1308.11) (United States) | Psilocybin (code 7437) and psilocyn (code 7438) are listed in Schedule I. source | 2026-10-25 |
| US Food and Drug Administration (United States) | NIDA says FDA granted Breakthrough Therapy designation for a few psilocybin formulations studied for depression. That is a development status, not an approval. source | 2026-10-25 |
When to get medical help
- Anyone who has eaten a wild mushroom and develops vomiting, diarrhea or belly pain, even if they feel better later: call poison control or emergency services at once and keep a sample if safe. Amatoxin poisoning can seem to improve before the liver fails.
- Chest pain, seizure, very high temperature, confusion that does not clear, or loss of consciousness: call your local emergency number now.
- Thoughts of suicide or self-harm after use: call your local emergency number or crisis line.
- In the US, Poison Help is 1-800-222-1222 (poison.org). Numbers elsewhere were not verified here; use your local emergency number.
If someone may be poisoned or in a crisis, contact a clinician or emergency service straight away. In the US, Poison Control is 1-800-222-1222.
General information only, not medical advice. Ask a clinician or pharmacist before use, especially with medicines, in pregnancy or with a health condition. See the Natural Remedy Safety guide.
Frequently asked questions
What is Psilocybe cyanescens?
Where has it been recorded?
How strong is it?
Is it safe?
No mushroom is safe because of its name or look. Psilocybin raises blood pressure and heart rate and can cause terror, and unsupervised use is riskier than clinic research. No safety study of this species exists. Poison-centre reports on psilocybin mushrooms in general show mostly mild to moderate effects, with rare serious ones.
Can it be mistaken for a deadly mushroom?
Does it treat depression?
Have any clinical trials used this species?
How does it compare with Psilocybe cubensis?
Both contain psilocybin and psilocin. In one laboratory study this species measured higher and more uneven, but content differs between mushrooms of the same species, so no comparison tells you what a given mushroom will do. See the P. cubensis page for its own data.
What else is in it besides psilocybin?
Psilocin, baeocystin, norbaeocystin and small amounts of aeruginascin were measured. Their effects are not established, and the authors say the mix could change effects compared with pure psilocybin.
Is it legal?
It depends on the country and changes over time. In the United States, psilocybin and psilocyn are Schedule I. Some countries treat the mushrooms differently from the chemicals. This is not legal advice; check a current official source.
What should I do after eating a wild mushroom and feeling sick?
Call poison control or emergency services at once, even if you feel better later, because deadly poisoning can seem to improve before the liver fails. In the US, Poison Help is 1-800-222-1222. Elsewhere use your local emergency number.
Should I take lithium or other medicines with it?
Reports link lithium with seizures when combined with classic psychedelics. Ask a doctor or pharmacist about any medicine, and do not stop a medicine on your own.
Explore by health goal
Editorial transparency
- Written by
- AlternativeMed editorial team. Research compiled with AI assistance, then checked against PubMed records.
- Medical review
- None. This page has not been reviewed by a physician or pharmacist.
- First published
- 2026-10-25
- Last substantive update
- 2026-10-25
- How we research
- We read the abstracts of the PubMed papers cited, read the full text of two open-access laboratory papers for species-specific numbers, read NIDA and the US federal drug schedule, and checked the name in GBIF and Index Fungorum and compounds in PubChem. Certainty ratings are the compiler's own reading. One museum study has an author with company interests in psilocybin; this is flagged. UN and Australian regulatory entries were not verified with the regulators.
- How we rate evidence
- See "How we rate evidence" in the Evidence tab.
- Independence
- No product is promoted. No affiliate links are shown. This page is information, not encouragement to use anything, and does not teach identification, growing or foraging.
Sources 22
Each source was opened and checked. Where we read only the abstract, it says so. The small numbers in the text point here.
- Bradshaw AJ, Backman TA, Ramírez-Cruz V et al. DNA Authentication and Chemical Analysis of Psilocybe Mushrooms Reveal Widespread Misdeterminations in Fungaria and Inconsistencies in Metabolites.. Appl Environ Microbiol. 2022. PMID 36445079. DOI 10.1128/aem.01498-22. (full-text (open access, PMC9764976))
- Brown RT, Nicholas CR, Cozzi NV et al. Pharmacokinetics of Escalating Doses of Oral Psilocybin in Healthy Adults.. Clin Pharmacokinet. 2017. PMID 28353056. DOI 10.1007/s40262-017-0540-6. (abstract)
- Diaz JH. Amatoxin-Containing Mushroom Poisonings: Species, Toxidromes, Treatments, and Outcomes.. Wilderness Environ Med. 2018. PMID 29325729. DOI 10.1016/j.wem.2017.10.002. (abstract)
- Freitas RR, Gotsis ES, Gallo AT et al. The safety of psilocybin-assisted psychotherapy: A systematic review.. Aust N Z J Psychiatry. 2025. PMID 39670342. DOI 10.1177/00048674241289024. (abstract)
- Goodwin GM, Aaronson ST, Alvarez O et al. Single-Dose Psilocybin for a Treatment-Resistant Episode of Major Depression.. N Engl J Med. 2022. PMID 36322843. DOI 10.1056/NEJMoa2206443. (abstract)
- Gotvaldová K, Borovička J, Hájková K et al. Extensive Collection of Psychotropic Mushrooms with Determination of Their Tryptamine Alkaloids.. Int J Mol Sci. 2022. PMID 36430546. DOI 10.3390/ijms232214068. (full-text (open access, PMC9693126))
- Hinkle JT, Graziosi M, Nayak SM et al. Adverse Events in Studies of Classic Psychedelics: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis.. JAMA Psychiatry. 2024. PMID 39230883. DOI 10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2024.2546. (abstract)
- Holze F, Becker AM, Kolaczynska KE et al. Pharmacokinetics and Pharmacodynamics of Oral Psilocybin Administration in Healthy Participants.. Clin Pharmacol Ther. 2023. PMID 36507738. DOI 10.1002/cpt.2821. (abstract)
- Jorgenson DM, Santos Leon E, Vakkalanka JP et al. Psychoactive mushroom edibles: trends and toxicities reported to the United States National Poison Data System, 2023-2024.. Clin Toxicol (Phila). 2026. PMID 41493095. DOI 10.1080/15563650.2025.2599402. (abstract)
- Leonard JB, Anderson B, Klein-Schwartz W. Does getting high hurt?. J Psychopharmacol. 2018. PMID 30182795. DOI 10.1177/0269881118793086. (abstract)
- Madsen MK, Fisher PM, Burmester D et al. Psychedelic effects of psilocybin correlate with serotonin 2A receptor occupancy and plasma psilocin levels.. Neuropsychopharmacology. 2019. PMID 30685771. DOI 10.1038/s41386-019-0324-9. (abstract)
- Mertens LJ, Koslowski M, Betzler F et al. Efficacy and Safety of Psilocybin in Treatment-Resistant Major Depression: The EPISODE Randomized Clinical Trial.. JAMA Psychiatry. 2026. PMID 41848690. DOI 10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2026.0132. (abstract)
- Metaxa AM, Clarke M. Efficacy of psilocybin for treating symptoms of depression: systematic review and meta-analysis.. BMJ. 2024. PMID 38692686. DOI 10.1136/bmj-2023-078084. (abstract)
- Nayak SM, Gukasyan N, Barrett FS et al. Classic Psychedelic Coadministration with Lithium, but Not Lamotrigine, is Associated with Seizures: An Analysis of Online Psychedelic Experience Reports.. Pharmacopsychiatry. 2021. PMID 34348413. DOI 10.1055/a-1524-2794. (abstract)
- Orsini DK, Wong S, Di Luch S et al. Blinding Integrity in Psychedelic Randomized Clinical Trials: A Systematic Review.. JAMA Psychiatry. 2026. PMID 41984443. DOI 10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2026.0255. (abstract)
- Raison CL, Sanacora G, Woolley J et al. Single-Dose Psilocybin Treatment for Major Depressive Disorder: A Randomized Clinical Trial.. JAMA. 2023. PMID 37651119. DOI 10.1001/jama.2023.14530. (abstract)
- Thaoboonruang N, Lohitnavy M, Lohitnavy O. Pharmacokinetics of Psilocybin, a Tryptamine Alkaloid in Magic Mushroom (Psilocybe cubensis): A Systematic Review.. J Psychoactive Drugs. 2025. PMID 39257234. DOI 10.1080/02791072.2024.2399128. (abstract)
- n/a. NIDA: Psilocybin (Magic Mushrooms) (page read 2026-10-25). n/a. 2026. (full-text)
- n/a. US eCFR: 21 CFR 1308.11 Schedule I (version dated 2026-10-20). n/a. 2026. (full-text)
- n/a. PubChem: Psilocybin (CID 10624), psilocin (CID 4980), baeocystin (CID 161359), norbaeocystin (CID 9795063), aeruginascin (CID 60208480). n/a. 2026. (api)
- n/a. GBIF Backbone Taxonomy: Psilocybe cyanescens Wakef. (key 5242465), retrieved 2026-10-25. n/a. 2026. (api)
- n/a. Index Fungorum: Psilocybe cyanescens Wakef., Index of Fungi 1: 170 (retrieved 2026-10-25). n/a. 2026. (api)
