Psychedelic Therapy · Fungus
Psilocybe mexicana
Psilocybe mexicana · also called Magic mushroom (a general term for many species)
Psilocybe mexicana is a mushroom from Mexico that contains psilocybin, which the body turns into psilocin. Psilocybin was first isolated from it in 1958, and the mushroom comes from the sacred practice of the Mazatec people. No clinical trial of this mushroom itself was found. It is illegal in many places, and deadly mushrooms can look like it. A name or photo never makes a mushroom safe.
General information, not medical advice. Last substantive update · Not medically reviewed. A named clinician has not signed off on this page. How this page is made
About Psilocybe mexicana
Psilocybe mexicana is a Mexican mushroom whose main compounds are psilocybin and psilocin. Psilocybin was first isolated from it in 1958, which makes it important in the history of psychedelic science. It is also part of Mazatec heritage. No clinical trial of the mushroom itself was found; psilocybin trials used the purified drug. Safety risks include fear, raised blood pressure, mental-health crises, and fatal mix-ups with toxic wild mushrooms.
What it is
Psilocybe mexicana R.Heim is an accepted species in the family Hymenogastraceae. It was published in 1957 and has four listed synonyms: P. armandii, P. galindoi, P. pileocystidiata and P. subacutipilea. GBIF holds 344 records, 273 of them from Mexico; records show where it was recorded, not where it is native.
In one lab study of two fruiting bodies from one collection, psilocybin and psilocin were the main compounds, with smaller amounts of baeocystin and norbaeocystin and traces of aeruginascin. Levels in mushrooms are extremely variable, so this cannot describe the species as a whole.
A 1958 paper reports that the species formed sclerotia, dense resting bodies that are a different structure from the mushroom, in laboratory culture (title only read).
History and the Mazatec
The mushrooms belong first to the Mazatec people of the Sierra Mazateca in Oaxaca, Mexico. A history of the trade reports that Gordon Wasson's 1957 article in Life brought them to the world's attention, that the French mycologist Roger Heim grew this species in his laboratory after receiving samples in 1954, and that a Sandoz team led by Albert Hofmann isolated psilocybin in 1958. A lab paper also says psilocin and psilocybin were isolated from this species in 1958.
Sellers describe the mushrooms as a sacred medicine, and one Mazatec source cited says the knowledge was given, not sold, because of its sacredness. This page tells the history only at that level. Sacred practice is not ours to explain, and historical use is not evidence that any use works.
How it works in the body
Psilocybin is a prodrug: the body converts it to psilocin, which acts on serotonin systems. For this species, only a rat study of purified psilocin was found, showing changes in dopamine and serotonin in some brain regions. Human data on psilocybin are on the psilocybin and Psilocybe cubensis pages.
What the clinical trials show
No clinical trial of Psilocybe mexicana was found. Trials of purified synthetic psilocybin with therapy for depression and other conditions are summarised on the Psilocybe cubensis and psilocybin pages, with their mixed results and blinding problems. Those results cannot be assumed to apply to a wild mushroom, whose strength varies a great deal.
At a glance
Traditional uses history, not proof
- The Mazatec people of the Sierra Mazateca in Oaxaca, Mexico, have long used Psilocybe mushrooms in their own healing and sacred practice, and the world learned of them there in the 1950s. This is tradition, not clinical proof. Sacred practice belongs to the Mazatec to explain.
Studied for research
- Mental-health research on psilocybin, insufficient evidence for this species (no trial of the mushroom)
- Lab chemistry of the fruiting bodies, very low (two mushrooms measured)
- Genetics of how the fungus makes psilocybin, basic lab science
- Psilocin in rats, animal study only
Main compounds
- Psilocybin (becomes psilocin in the body)
- Psilocin, the active form
- Baeocystin and norbaeocystin
- Aeruginascin (traces)
Common forms
- No preparation is described or recommended on this page
Research links: NIDA: Psilocybin (Magic Mushrooms) · GBIF record for Psilocybe mexicana · Lab measurement of tryptamines in mushrooms, 2022 · Selling the Priceless Mushroom, a history of the trade in the Sierra Mazateca, 2022 · Research Library · Genes & Biomarkers Library
What it is and its history
- Accepted scientific name
- Psilocybe mexicana
- Naming authority
- R.Heim
- Synonyms
- Psilocybe armandii Guzmán & S.H.Pollock; Psilocybe galindoi Guzmán; Psilocybe pileocystidiata Guzmán & Ram.-Guill.; Psilocybe subacutipilea Guzmán, Saldarr., Pineda, G.García & L.-F.Velázquez
- Common names
- Magic mushroom (English)
- Family or group
- Hymenogastraceae (GBIF).
- Classification
- Fungi > Basidiomycota > Agaricomycetes > Agaricales > Hymenogastraceae > Psilocybe > Psilocybe mexicana
- Native range
- Not established from a source read. GBIF holds 344 records: 273 from Mexico, a few from Guatemala (4), the United States (3), Costa Rica (2) and others. GBIF records show where it was recorded, not where it is native, and a lab paper notes that specimen names are often unreliable.
- Habitat
- Not verified in a source read.
- What it looks like
- Roots: Not checked.; Stems: Not checked.; Fruit: The fruiting body (cap and stalk) is what a lab analysed. This species is also reported to form sclerotia (dense resting bodies) in laboratory culture, per the title of a 1958 paper; the structure is different from the mushroom.
- Cultivation
- Not covered on purpose.
- Harvest and processing
- Not covered on purpose.
- Look-alikes and adulterants
- Name: Deadly amatoxin mushrooms (Galerina, Amanita, Lepiota) and other toxic species; Note: NIDA lists mistaking a toxic mushroom for a psilocybin one as a risk, and a review says most fatal mushroom poisonings involve amatoxins. A DNA study found museum Psilocybe names largely unreliable. This page does not teach identification, and no photo or name makes a mushroom safe.
- Sustainability and conservation
- Not checked.
Traditional use and history history, not clinical proof
| Tradition or era | Documented use | Source |
|---|---|---|
| Naming, 1957 | The species was published as Psilocybe mexicana by the French mycologist Roger Heim in 1957 (Catalogue of Life entry in GBIF). | s-gbif-pmex |
| Mazatec people, Sierra Mazateca, Oaxaca (Mexico) | A history of the mushroom trade in the Sierra Mazateca reports that Gordon Wasson's 1957 article in Life brought these mushrooms to the world's attention, that sellers describe them as a sacred medicine, and that a Mazatec source says the knowledge was given, not sold, because of its sacredness. A 2025 paper says Mazatec use became known to the world in 1957 and that other Indigenous peoples of Mexico, including the Zapotec, also used Psilocybe mushrooms. Sacred practice is the Mazatec's to explain; this page does not describe it. Needs Indigenous/cultural review by the owner. | s-jied-garcia |
| 1954 to 1958, Europe | The same history says Roger Heim grew Psilocybe mexicana in his laboratory after Wasson sent samples in 1954, and that a Sandoz team led by Albert Hofmann isolated psilocybin in 1958. A lab paper (full text read) also says psilocin and psilocybin were isolated from this species in 1958. The 1958 paper by Hofmann, Heim and Brack carries the species name in its title (title record only). | s-jied-garcia |
| Early Swiss research, 1959-1961 | Two Swiss papers (1959, 1961) have titles about psilocybin from this species. Only titles were found; their contents are NOT verified. | p13537892 |
Traditional use shows how it was used. It does not show that it works or is safe today.
What is inside, and how it may work
What it contains and how those compounds act in cells and animals. Laboratory and animal mechanisms are not proven effects in people.
Main compounds
| Compound | Family | Where it is concentrated | Activity studied | Level of evidence |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Psilocybin PubChem 10624 | tryptamine (prodrug) | Fruiting body 3.286 to 3.934 mg/g dry mass in two fruiting bodies from one collection (one lab study); not a typical value for the species. | Turned into psilocin in the body (human data on the psilocybin page). 14 7 | Lab |
| Psilocin PubChem 4980 | tryptamine | Fruiting body 1.944 to 1.974 mg/g dry mass in the same two fruiting bodies. | The active form. In rats, purified psilocin changed dopamine and serotonin levels in some brain regions. 14 7 17 | Animal research |
| Baeocystin PubChem 161359 | tryptamine | Fruiting body 0.254 to 0.328 mg/g (the paper's text gives 0.324 as the upper value). | Effects not established from the sources read. 14 7 | Lab |
| Norbaeocystin PubChem 9795063 | tryptamine | Fruiting body 0.159 to 0.203 mg/g. | Effects not established from the sources read. 14 7 | Lab |
| Aeruginascin PubChem 60208480 | tryptamine | Fruiting body Traces, 0.006 to 0.007 mg/g. A genome survey also names the species as an aeruginascin producer. | Effects not established from the sources read. 14 7 3 | Lab |
Mechanisms, receptors and pathways
| Target or pathway | Gene or receptor | What was found | Level |
|---|---|---|---|
| Brain dopamine and serotonin | Rat brain regions (nucleus accumbens, medial prefrontal cortex) | Purified psilocin raised dopamine in the nucleus accumbens and raised serotonin (while lowering dopamine) in the medial prefrontal cortex of awake rats. 17 | Animal research |
| Tryptophan supply in the fungus | Fungal genes (trpE1, trpD, trpB, idoA, iasA) | In fruiting bodies, genes that make L-tryptophan were switched on and genes that consume it were switched off, which the authors read as routing it toward psilocybin. 18 | Lab |
Absorption, metabolism and elimination
- Absorption
- Not studied for this species. Human data on psilocybin are on the psilocybin and Psilocybe cubensis pages.
- Distribution
- Not read.
- Metabolism
- Not read for this species.
- Elimination
- Not read for this species.
- Bioavailability
- Not established for the whole mushroom.
Isolated compounds versus whole extracts
The modern human trials used purified synthetic psilocybin. A mushroom holds other tryptamines and varies in strength, and the authors of the lab study say this mixture could change effects and complicate data. No trial of this mushroom was found.
Nutritional composition
Not a nutrient and has no nutritional claim.
2 very low certainty3 not enough evidence
What was looked at
The 5 benefits and uses checked for Psilocybe mexicana, each with how strong the evidence is. Tap one to open it.
- Depression, anxiety and other mental-health research (psilocybin)Not enough evidence
- What a lab found in the fruiting bodies (chemistry)Very low certainty
- Sclerotia (dense resting bodies) in cultureNot enough evidence
- How the fungus makes psilocybin (genetics)Not enough evidence
- Psilocin in rat brain chemistryVery low certainty
What is Psilocybe mexicana good for?
What the research says about this species. No clinical trial of this mushroom was found, so nothing here is a use we can support. Studies of the species are laboratory chemistry, genetics and animal work.
Benefits, one by one
Each card is a research question, not a promise. Tap a goal to filter. Open a card to see the studies, doses and limits.
Depression, anxiety and other mental-health research (psilocybin)
Not enough evidenceNo clinical trial of Psilocybe mexicana itself was found. The species matters because psilocybin was first isolated from it in 1958. The modern trials used purified, synthetic psilocybin, not this mushroom.
3 studiesNot covered.
Studies, doses and limits
What the trials found
A PubMed search for the species name in titles and abstracts found six papers, none of them a modern clinical trial of the mushroom. Two Swiss papers from 1959 and 1961 have titles about psilocybin from this species, but only their titles were read, so nothing is claimed about them. Modern trials of purified psilocybin are summarised on the linked pages, not here.
Results
No result for Psilocybe mexicana as a treatment can be reported.
Why this rating
There is no clinical trial of this species. Psilocybin trials cannot be assumed to apply to a wild mushroom, whose strength varies a great deal.
Form and dose studied
Not covered.
Limits
The two fruiting bodies measured in a lab study cannot show what a typical mushroom holds, and names of small brown mushrooms are often wrong.
Why researchers looked
Psilocybin, the main compound in this mushroom, is studied for depression, cancer-related distress and addiction. That research is covered on the psilocybin and Psilocybe cubensis pages.
Traditional use
The Mazatec people of the Sierra Mazateca in Oaxaca, Mexico, have long used Psilocybe mushrooms in their own healing and sacred practice, and it was through the Mazatec that the world learned of them in the 1950s. That tradition is separate from clinical evidence.
Proposed mechanism Animal research
The mushroom holds psilocybin, which the body turns into psilocin. A rat study of purified psilocin found changes in brain dopamine and serotonin. That is animal work and does not show any benefit.
A proposed mechanism does not show that the effect happens in people.
See the Safety tab. A wrong mushroom can be deadly.
What a lab found in the fruiting bodies (chemistry)
Very low certaintyIn one lab study of two fruiting bodies from one collection, the main compound was psilocybin, with psilocin and smaller amounts of related tryptamines. This is a measurement, not a benefit.
1 studiesNot covered.
Studies, doses and limits
Results
Per gram of dry mass: psilocybin 3.286 to 3.934 mg, psilocin 1.944 to 1.974 mg, baeocystin 0.254 to 0.328 mg, norbaeocystin 0.159 to 0.203 mg and aeruginascin 0.006 to 0.007 mg. The authors of the study say levels in mushrooms are extremely variable and that their values match historical findings.
Why this rating
Only two fruiting bodies from one collection were measured.
Form and dose studied
Not covered.
Limits
A tiny sample; a single lab; no information about effects.
Why researchers looked
Researchers measure what mushrooms contain because content varies so much from one mushroom to another.
Proposed mechanism Lab
Psilocybin is a prodrug that the body turns into psilocin. Baeocystin, norbaeocystin and aeruginascin are related compounds whose effects in people are not established.
A proposed mechanism does not show that the effect happens in people.
Strength varies from mushroom to mushroom, which is a safety problem in itself.
Sclerotia (dense resting bodies) in culture
Not enough evidenceA 1958 paper reports that this species formed sclerotia in laboratory culture. Only its title was read, so little can be said. Sclerotia are not the same structure as the mushroom.
2 studiesNot covered.
Studies, doses and limits
Results
A separate 2013 analysis found psilocybin in Psilocybe sclerotia from the market, but its abstract does not say which species they were, so it cannot be tied to P. mexicana.
Why this rating
Title-only history record and a paper that does not name the species.
Form and dose studied
Not covered.
Limits
Abstract and full text of the 1958 paper were not read.
Why researchers looked
The 1958 culture work helped the chemists who first isolated psilocybin.
Proposed mechanism None
Not studied for this species in the sources read.
A proposed mechanism does not show that the effect happens in people.
Products sold as truffles are not guaranteed to be what the label says.
How the fungus makes psilocybin (genetics)
Not enough evidenceLab studies of the fungus's genes show how it routes the building block tryptophan toward psilocybin as the mushroom forms, and that it can also make aeruginascin. It tells us about the fungus, not about health.
2 studiesNot covered.
Studies, doses and limits
Results
Fruiting bodies behaved differently from psilocybin-free mycelium. A 2022 survey of five genomes identified P. mexicana as an aeruginascin producer.
Why this rating
Basic lab science; no health use is tested.
Form and dose studied
Not covered.
Limits
Genome and gene-expression studies only.
Why researchers looked
Understanding the genes may help science explain how psilocybin is made.
Proposed mechanism Lab
Genes that make tryptophan switch on in the fruiting body and genes that use it up switch off (test-tube and gene-expression work).
A proposed mechanism does not show that the effect happens in people.
Not applicable.
Psilocin in rat brain chemistry
Very low certaintyIn rats, purified psilocin changed dopamine and serotonin levels in some brain regions. This is animal work with the purified chemical and does not show a benefit in people.
1 studiesNot covered.
Studies, doses and limits
Results
See mechanism.
Why this rating
A single animal study of the purified chemical.
Form and dose studied
Not covered.
Limits
Rats given the chemical by injection; not the mushroom.
Why researchers looked
To understand which brain systems psilocin touches.
Proposed mechanism Animal research
Raised dopamine in the nucleus accumbens; raised serotonin and lowered dopamine in the medial prefrontal cortex; more head twitches (rats).
A proposed mechanism does not show that the effect happens in people.
Not applicable.
Connections to the rest of health
How Psilocybe mexicana connects to the rest of our health knowledge graph. Every link says what kind of connection it is. A safety link (for example to the liver) is a warning, not a benefit. A study that merely mentions a topic never creates a benefit link.
Explore every connection: goals, body systems, organs, symptoms, genes
B. Body systems
L. Active compounds
| Connected to | Kind of connection | Evidence status | Context | Studies |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Psilocybin | Biological association | Lab | Turned into psilocin in the body (human data on the psilocybin page). Preparation or compound: Fruiting body |
14 7 |
| Psilocin | Biological association | Animal | The active form. In rats, purified psilocin changed dopamine and serotonin levels in some brain regions. Preparation or compound: Fruiting body |
14 7 17 |
| Baeocystin | Biological association | Lab | Effects not established from the sources read. Preparation or compound: Fruiting body |
14 7 |
| Norbaeocystin | Biological association | Lab | Effects not established from the sources read. Preparation or compound: Fruiting body |
14 7 |
| Aeruginascin | Biological association | Lab | Effects not established from the sources read. Preparation or compound: Fruiting body |
14 7 3 |
Each connection is stored with the ingredient, the connected record, the kind of connection, the evidence status, the supporting studies, the preparation or compound involved, and a review date (last reviewed October 25, 2026).
Evidence at a glance: what the research found for 5 outcomes
Each outcome below is one thing researchers measured. Certainty is how far the evidence can be trusted, not how well it works. The full studies are on the next tab.
The evidence
The research centre for Psilocybe mexicana. Every record here was checked against PubMed or the publisher's page; we never list a study we have not verified.
Evidence by outcome
Bars show how many studies we found for each outcome, not how well it works. People are added up across trials only (reviews are not added, to avoid double counting).
How we rate evidence
High certainty
Several well-run trials or reviews agree; further research is unlikely to change the picture much.
Moderate certainty
Good trials point the same way, but some doubt remains.
Low certainty
Small, short or inconsistent trials. The finding could change with better research.
Very low certainty
Very little or very weak human data. Treat as a possibility only.
Mixed findings
Trials or reviews disagree with each other.
Not enough evidence
Not enough human research to say either way.
Evidence against
Good research found no benefit, or found harm.
We take the reviewers' own risk-of-bias and GRADE statements where they exist, and otherwise judge from study size, design, consistency, directness and whether a product matches what is sold. Many publications do not make evidence high. Method note: We read PubMed abstracts and the full text of the 2022 lab study that measured this species, read NIDA, the US federal drug schedule and the 1971 UN Convention schedule, and checked the name and synonyms in GBIF (which carries Species Fungorum Plus and Catalogue of Life) and compounds in PubChem. Index Fungorum and MycoBank could not be read directly. Some historical papers were read as titles only. Certainty ratings are the compiler's own reading.
Study library: every study we checked 21
| Study | Design | People | Product, dose, length | Result |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Bradshaw 2022 DNA Authentication and Chemical Analysis of Psilocybe Mushrooms Reveal Widespread Misdeterminations in Fungaria and Inconsistencies in Metabolites. Appl Environ Microbiol · PMID 36445079 · DOI |
Lab analysis fungus (lab) |
94 94 museum Psilocybe specimens of 18 species (abstract does not single out P. mexicana) |
None Not reproduced here |
Apart from a few well-known species, the names on specimens were largely unreliable, even at genus level. Psilocybin and psilocin decayed over time in some specimens, and some had none detectable. Names and chemistry of Psilocybe collections are less reliable than assumed Methods, limits and fundingOutcomes: DNA barcoding and tryptamine stability Limitations: Not specific to P. mexicana; it is used here only to show that names of small brown mushrooms are unreliable. Funding and conflicts: Not stated in the abstract Read: abstract |
| Diaz 2018 Amatoxin-Containing Mushroom Poisonings: Species, Toxidromes, Treatments, and Outcomes. Wilderness Environ Med · PMID 29325729 · DOI |
Review |
Review of amatoxin mushroom poisonings | Amanita, Lepiota and Galerina mushrooms Fixed protocol doses; not reproduced here See results · vs See results |
Most mushroom poisonings are caused by unknown mushrooms, and most fatal ones by amatoxin-containing mushrooms. Galerina marginata is the most frequent fatal Galerina. Treatment is mainly supportive and some patients need a liver transplant. Deadly poisonings come mostly from unidentified wild mushrooms Methods, limits and fundingOutcomes: Epidemiology and outcomes Limitations: Narrative review. Funding and conflicts: Not stated in the abstract Read: abstract |
| Dörner 2022 Genetic Survey of Psilocybe Natural Products. Chembiochem · PMID 35583969 · DOI |
Lab genomics fungus (genomes) |
Genomes of five Psilocybe species (P. azurescens, P. cubensis, P. cyanescens, P. mexicana, P. serbica) | None (genome analysis) Not reproduced here |
P. cyanescens and P. mexicana were identified as aeruginascin producers. The genomes pointed to a much greater and unexplored metabolic diversity than parallel chemical analyses showed. Lab and genome study; no health effect Methods, limits and fundingOutcomes: Metabolic capacity predicted from genomes Limitations: Predicts what a fungus could make; does not show effects in people. Funding and conflicts: Non-US government research support listed Read: abstract |
| Freitas 2025 The safety of psilocybin-assisted psychotherapy: A systematic review. Aust N Z J Psychiatry · PMID 39670342 · DOI |
Systematic review |
24 articles from psilocybin-assisted psychotherapy trials | Psilocybin-assisted psychotherapy Fixed protocol doses; not reproduced here See results · vs See results |
Common events were raised blood pressure, headache, nausea, vomiting, fatigue and anxiety. Suicidal thoughts and behaviour were infrequent, mostly in people with prior suicidal history. No deaths were attributed to psilocybin. The authors urge caution because safety data are preliminary and varied. Generally supported, preliminary Methods, limits and fundingOutcomes: Adverse events Limitations: Heterogeneous reporting. Funding and conflicts: Non-US government research support listed Read: abstract |
| GBIF Secretariat 2026 GBIF Backbone Taxonomy record: Psilocybe mexicana R.Heim (key 5242538), synonyms and occurrence counts, retrieved 2026-10-25 GBIF API · Source |
Database record n/a |
n/a | n/a Not reproduced here |
Accepted name Psilocybe mexicana R.Heim, family Hymenogastraceae, published 1957 in Revue de Mycologie 22(1):77 (Catalogue of Life entry in GBIF). Synonyms: P. armandii, P. galindoi, P. pileocystidiata, P. subacutipilea. The Species Fungorum Plus checklist inside GBIF (the Index Fungorum names list) also gives P. mexicana R.Heim as accepted with the same four synonyms. 344 occurrence records, 273 of them from Mexico. n/a Methods, limits and fundingOutcomes: Accepted name, synonyms, occurrence records Limitations: Index Fungorum's own site was blocked and MycoBank's site would not load data, so the check is through GBIF copies. Occurrence records show where it was recorded, not where it is native. Funding and conflicts: n/a Read: api |
| García de Teresa 2022 Selling the Priceless Mushroom: A History of Psilocybin Mushroom Trade in the Sierra Mazateca (Oaxaca) Journal of Illicit Economies and Development 4(2):177-190 · Source · DOI |
History article n/a |
Historical and field study, Sierra Mazateca | n/a Not reproduced here |
Reads that Roger Heim managed to cultivate Psilocybe mexicana in his laboratory after receiving samples from Gordon Wasson in 1954; that Wasson's 1957 Life article revealed the mushrooms to the international public; that a Sandoz team led by Albert Hofmann isolated the active substance, psilocybin, in 1958; that sellers describe the mushrooms as a sacred medicine; and that a Mazatec source says the knowledge was given, not sold, because of its sacredness. n/a Methods, limits and fundingOutcomes: History of how the mushrooms became known and traded Limitations: Web page read (summary of the article); only the sections named were checked. Needs Indigenous/cultural review. Funding and conflicts: n/a Read: web-page |
| Gotvaldová 2022 Extensive Collection of Psychotropic Mushrooms with Determination of Their Tryptamine Alkaloids. Int J Mol Sci · PMID 36430546 · DOI |
Lab analysis fungus (lab chemistry) |
226 fruiting bodies from 82 collections of seven genera; for Psilocybe mexicana, 2 fruiting bodies from 1 collection | Wild-collected mushrooms (dried) Not reproduced here |
Across all species, tryptamine levels were extremely variable. In the full text (Table), Psilocybe mexicana showed aeruginascin 0.006 to 0.007, baeocystin 0.254 to 0.328, norbaeocystin 0.159 to 0.203, psilocin 1.944 to 1.974 and psilocybin 3.286 to 3.934 mg per gram of dry mass (the text gives the baeocystin upper value as 0.324). The authors note this is consistent with the historical findings of Hofmann and colleagues and that psilocin and psilocybin were isolated from this species in 1958. Chemical measurement only; no effects tested Methods, limits and fundingOutcomes: Psilocybin, psilocin, baeocystin, norbaeocystin and aeruginascin by UHPLC-MS/MS Limitations: Only two fruiting bodies from one collection were measured, so the numbers cannot describe the species as a whole. The authors say tryptamine levels in mushrooms are extremely variable. Funding and conflicts: Not checked Read: full-text (Europe PMC PMC9693126) |
| Haro-Luna 2025 Current use of holy mushrooms of the genus Psilocybe in a Zapotec community in Oaxaca, Mexico. IMA Fungus · PMID 40453385 · DOI |
Qualitative interviews human (interviews) |
30 30 people in one Zapotec community (El Peral), Oaxaca |
n/a (about Psilocybe zapotecorum, not P. mexicana) Not reproduced here |
The abstract says Mazatec use of Psilocybe mushrooms became known to the world in 1957, that other Indigenous groups in Mexico including the Zapotecs also used them, and that traditions are changing through commodification and psychedelic tourism. Context only Methods, limits and fundingOutcomes: Changes in use, customs and knowledge Limitations: About a different species and a different people; used here only for cultural context. Funding and conflicts: Not stated in the abstract Read: abstract |
| Heim 1958 Determinism of carpophore and sclerote formation in culture of Psilocybe mexicana Heim, a hallucinogenic agaric of Mexico and demonstration of psilocybine and psilocine (English title on PubMed). C R Hebd Seances Acad Sci · PMID 13537389 |
Historical record n/a |
Title record only | n/a Not reproduced here |
Title says fruiting bodies and sclerotia (dense resting bodies) formed in laboratory culture of this species and that psilocybin and psilocin were demonstrated The PubMed record has no abstract. Only the title was read. Methods, limits and fundingOutcomes: n/a Limitations: n/a Funding and conflicts: Abstract and full text not read; details of the culture work are not claimed. Registration: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/13537389/ Read: n/a |
| Hinkle 2024 Adverse Events in Studies of Classic Psychedelics: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. JAMA Psychiatry · PMID 39230883 · DOI |
Meta-analysis |
3504 |
Classic psychedelics in clinical or research settings Fixed protocol doses; not reproduced here See results · vs See results |
Serious events were reported for no healthy participants and about 4% of people with existing neuropsychiatric disorders (worsening depression, suicidal behaviour, psychosis, convulsions). No deaths by suicide, persistent psychosis or hallucinogen persisting perception disorder were reported in contemporary research settings. Monitoring quality varied: of 68 studies since 2005, only 16 used systematic adverse-event assessment. Generally well tolerated in research settings, with uneven monitoring Methods, limits and fundingOutcomes: Serious and non-serious adverse events Limitations: Research settings only, with screening and support; says little about unsupervised use. Funding and conflicts: Not stated in the abstract Read: abstract |
| Hofmann 1958 Psilocybin, a psychotropic substance from the Mexican mushroom Psilocybe mexicana Heim (German-language title record). Experientia · PMID 13537892 · DOI |
Historical record n/a |
Title record only | n/a Not reproduced here |
The PubMed record has no abstract. Only the title and citation were read. A later paper (Gotvaldová 2022, full text read) says psilocin and psilocybin were isolated from this species in 1958 by Albert Hofmann. n/a Methods, limits and fundingOutcomes: Title says psilocybin is a psychotropic substance from Psilocybe mexicana Limitations: Abstract and full text not read. Funding and conflicts: n/a Read: title-only |
| Jorgenson 2026 Psychoactive mushroom edibles: trends and toxicities reported to the United States National Poison Data System, 2023-2024. Clin Toxicol (Phila) · PMID 41493095 · DOI |
Observational |
362 362 poison-centre exposures to mushroom edibles (Amanita muscaria, psilocybin or unspecified) |
Unregulated psychoactive mushroom edibles Fixed protocol doses; not reproduced here See results · vs See results |
Polysubstance exposure, confusion and CNS depression were linked to admission and worse toxicity. No deaths were reported. The authors call the effects unpredictable and the products unregulated with unlisted ingredients. Unpredictable effects from edibles Methods, limits and fundingOutcomes: Hospital admission, severity Limitations: Reported cases only; product contents unknown. Funding and conflicts: Not stated in the abstract Read: abstract |
| Leonard 2018 Does getting high hurt? J Psychopharmacol · PMID 30182795 · DOI |
Observational |
5883 5,883 single-substance psilocybin-mushroom exposures reported to US poison centres |
Psilocybin-containing mushrooms (unsupervised use) Fixed protocol doses; not reproduced here See results · vs See results |
Most patients were 13 to 29 years old and male. Common effects were hallucinations (45.8%), agitation (24.1%) and fast heart rate (18.0%). Serious effects were infrequent but included overheating, seizures, coma and cardiac arrest. Most were treated and released from the emergency department. Mostly mild or moderate, with rare serious cases Methods, limits and fundingOutcomes: Clinical effects and outcomes Limitations: Reported cases only; mushroom type and amount unconfirmed. Funding and conflicts: Not stated in the abstract Read: abstract |
| NCBI PubChem 2026 PubChem compound records: psilocybin (CID 10624), psilocin (4980), baeocystin (161359), norbaeocystin (9795063), aeruginascin (60208480) PubChem REST · Source |
Database record n/a |
n/a | n/a Not reproduced here |
Names and formulas confirmed through the PubChem REST service on 2026-10-25. n/a Methods, limits and fundingOutcomes: Names and formulas Limitations: n/a Funding and conflicts: n/a Read: api |
| Nayak 2021 Classic Psychedelic Coadministration with Lithium, but Not Lamotrigine, is Associated with Seizures: An Analysis of Online Psychedelic Experience Reports. Pharmacopsychiatry · PMID 34348413 · DOI |
Case report series |
Online experience reports (Erowid, Shroomery, Reddit) | Classic psychedelics taken with mood stabilisers Fixed protocol doses; not reproduced here See results · vs See results |
In 62 lithium plus psychedelic reports, 47% involved seizures and 39% involved medical attention; none of 34 lamotrigine reports did. The authors provisionally conclude a significant seizure risk with lithium. Possible seizure risk with lithium Methods, limits and fundingOutcomes: Seizures and medical attention Limitations: Self-selected anonymous online reports, not verified, not a trial. Funding and conflicts: Not stated in the abstract Read: abstract |
| Pellegrini 2013 Magic truffles or Philosopher's stones: a legal way to sell psilocybin? Drug Test Anal · PMID 22887928 · DOI |
Lab analysis fungus (lab) |
Psilocybe sclerotia (species not named in the abstract) | Sclerotia Not reproduced here |
Only psilocybin was found in the sclerotia examined, ranging from 59.3 to 167.8 micrograms per 100 mg of fresh sclerotia. The paper says sclerotia have been used as a supply of psilocybin because they are not specifically named in some laws. Sclerotia can contain psilocybin Methods, limits and fundingOutcomes: Psilocybin and psilocin by LC-MS/MS Limitations: The abstract does not say which species the sclerotia came from, so it cannot be tied to P. mexicana. Funding and conflicts: Not stated in the abstract Read: abstract |
| Sakashita 2015 Effect of psilocin on extracellular dopamine and serotonin levels in the mesoaccumbens and mesocortical pathway in awake rats. Biol Pharm Bull · PMID 25342005 · DOI |
Animal study rat |
Awake rats | Purified psilocin (not a mushroom) Not reproduced here |
Psilocin raised dopamine in the nucleus accumbens and serotonin (while lowering dopamine) in the medial prefrontal cortex of rats, and increased head twitches. The abstract describes psilocin as a hallucinogenic component of the Mexican mushroom Psilocybe mexicana. Rat brain chemistry changes Methods, limits and fundingOutcomes: Dopamine and serotonin levels in brain areas, head twitches Limitations: Animal study of the purified chemical, not of the mushroom, and not a test of any health use. Funding and conflicts: Not stated in the abstract Read: abstract |
| Seibold 2024 Genetic regulation of L-tryptophan metabolism in Psilocybe mexicana supports psilocybin biosynthesis. Fungal Biol Biotechnol · PMID 38664850 · DOI |
Lab genomics fungus (lab) |
Psilocybe mexicana mycelium versus fruiting bodies (carpophores) | None (gene expression) Not reproduced here |
Compared with psilocybin-free vegetative mycelium, fruiting bodies switched on genes that make the amino acid L-tryptophan and switched off genes that use it up, which the authors read as routing it toward psilocybin. The fungus may hold up to about 2% psilocybin by dry mass according to the authors. Gene regulation differed from P. cubensis despite the close relationship. Lab study; no health effect Methods, limits and fundingOutcomes: Gene activity linked to psilocybin production Limitations: Gene-expression and test-tube work only. Funding and conflicts: Not stated in the abstract Read: abstract |
| United Nations 1971 Convention on Psychotropic Substances, 1971 (INCB-hosted PDF, text read 2026-10-25) INCB · Source |
Regulation n/a |
n/a | n/a Not reproduced here |
The Schedule I annex of the English text lists psilocin (also psilotsin) and psilocybine. Article 1 defines a psychotropic substance as a substance or a natural material in Schedule I, II, III or IV. The text read does not list any mushroom in Schedule I. n/a Methods, limits and fundingOutcomes: Schedule I list Limitations: The treaty text only; how each country treats mushrooms and sclerotia was not checked. An INCB statement that the fungi themselves are outside the treaty came from a search summary and was not read. Funding and conflicts: n/a Read: full-text |
| n/a 2026 NIDA: Psilocybin (Magic Mushrooms) (page read 2026-10-25) n/a · Source |
Authoritative guidance n/a |
n/a | n/a |
NIDA says psilocybin has low toxicity, raises blood pressure and heart rate, can cause fear or panic and risky behaviour, and that misidentifying mushrooms and taking a toxic one is a risk. It says there is no data on safety in pregnancy, that research has not established that microdosing is safe or effective, and that FDA granted Breakthrough Therapy designation to a few psilocybin formulations being studied for depression. It notes use in Central America for healing and ritual dating back to evidence from about 3000 B.C. Methods, limits and fundingOutcomes: NIDA says psilocybin has low toxicity, raises blood pressure and heart rate, can cause fear or panic and risky behaviour, and that misidentifying mushrooms and taking a toxic one is a risk. It says there is no data on safety in pregnancy, that research has not established that microdosing is safe or effective, and that FDA granted Breakthrough Therapy designation to a few psilocybin formulations being studied for depression. It notes use in Central America for healing and ritual dating back to evidence from about 3000 B.C. Limitations: Regulator-style fact page, not a trial; the date claim is NIDA's own. Read: full-text |
| n/a 2026 US eCFR: 21 CFR 1308.11 Schedule I (version dated 2026-10-20) n/a · Source |
Regulation n/a |
n/a | n/a |
Schedule I hallucinogenic substances list includes Psilocybin (code 7437) and Psilocyn (code 7438). Methods, limits and fundingOutcomes: Schedule I hallucinogenic substances list includes Psilocybin (code 7437) and Psilocyn (code 7438). Limitations: Lists the chemicals; it does not discuss the mushrooms or any state-level changes. Read: full-text |
What we do not know yet
- No clinical trial of this mushroom.
- Content measured in only two fruiting bodies from one collection.
- Native range, habitat and conservation were not verified.
- No safety study, case series or poison-centre report for this species.
- Mexican legal status was not checked.
How new research is added
New studies go to a review queue and a person reads each before any rating changes.
Lab markers
What changed in blood or saliva tests during trials. A changed number is not the same as feeling or being healthier, and we give no "normal ranges".
Safety
What studies and official sources say about side effects, medicines and who should check first. Each point shows what kind of evidence it comes from.
Main points to know 10
- Look-alikes can kill: a name or a photo does not make a mushroom safe. Deadly mushrooms can look like psilocybin mushrooms. Most mushroom poisonings come from unidentified wild mushrooms, and most deaths come from mushrooms that contain amatoxins (Amanita, Lepiota and Galerina species). NIDA lists taking a toxic mushroom in place of one that contains psilocybin as a risk. A DNA study found that names on museum Psilocybe specimens are largely unreliable even for experts, so a label, a name or a photo proves nothing. Poisoning by deadly mushrooms can look like a mild stomach upset and then cause liver failure days later. This page does not teach identification. Review 2 20 1
- Strength varies, and this species was measured in only two mushrooms. In the one lab study that measured Psilocybe mexicana, two fruiting bodies from one collection were tested. The same study found that psilocybin and related compounds are extremely variable between mushrooms in general, and its authors name the risk of taking too much as a problem for consumers. Museum specimens also lost psilocybin over time. Lab analysis 7 1
- No safety study of this species. No clinical safety study, case series or poison-centre report specific to Psilocybe mexicana was found. What is known about psilocybin risks comes from purified psilocybin trials and from reports about psilocybin mushrooms in general. Gap
- Psychosis, mania, bipolar disorder and serious mental illness. Clinical trials of psilocybin excluded people with a history of psychosis or mania. A large review found serious events in research settings including worsening depression and suicidal behaviour. NIDA says mental-health problems are more likely outside clinical settings. Systematic review 10 20
- Lithium and seizures. In 62 online reports of lithium combined with a classic psychedelic, 47% involved seizures. These are unverified reports, not a trial. Case report 15
- Fear, panic and risky behaviour. NIDA says the experience can be frightening and can lead to dangerous behaviour such as unsafe driving or walking in traffic. In US poison-centre data on psilocybin mushrooms, hallucinations, agitation and fast heart rate were most common; serious effects such as overheating, seizures, coma and cardiac arrest were infrequent. Observational 20 13
- Heart and blood pressure. Psilocybin typically raises blood pressure and heart rate, which NIDA says may be dangerous for people with heart conditions. Authoritative guidance 20 4
- Edibles and products sold as mushrooms or truffles. US poison centres received 362 reports of mushroom edibles in 2023-2024, with unpredictable effects and often unlisted ingredients. NIDA cites CDC reports that some candies marketed as psilocybin products contained toxic chemicals. Observational 12 20
- Pregnancy. NIDA says there is no data on the safety of psilocybin in pregnancy. Authoritative guidance 20
- Legal status. Psilocybin and psilocyn are Schedule I controlled substances in the United States, and psilocin and psilocybin are in Schedule I of the 1971 UN Convention. Laws on the mushrooms themselves differ by country and change. This is not legal advice; check a current official source. Regulation 21 19
Side effects 4
| Effect | How often | Severity and recovery | Evidence |
|---|---|---|---|
| Headache, nausea, vomiting, fatigue, dizziness From trials of purified psilocybin, not this species. | Among the most common events in psilocybin trials | mild to moderate Usually short-lived | Systematic review 4 10 |
| Raised blood pressure and heart rate NIDA warns about heart conditions. | Common in trials | mild to moderate; risky with heart disease Usually while effects last | Authoritative guidance 20 4 |
| Anxiety, fear, panic, paranoia ("bad trip") More likely outside supervised settings. | Not established | moderate Usually resolves | Authoritative guidance 20 |
| Hallucinations, agitation, fast heart rate (unsupervised use) Serious cases included overheating, seizures, coma and cardiac arrest. | Hallucinations 45.8%, agitation 24.1%, tachycardia 18.0% of 5,883 US poison-centre cases | mild to moderate; serious cases rare Most treated and released | Observational 13 |
Liver
No liver injury from psilocybin was found in the sources read. Liver failure is the hallmark of poisoning by deadly amatoxin mushrooms, which are not psilocybin mushrooms and which can be mistaken for them. 2
How often. Amatoxin poisoning is a separate emergency.
Monitoring. Not assessed.
This is a safety connection. It is not evidence that Psilocybe mexicana supports liver health.
Medicines and supplements 3
| With | Why it matters | Importance | Evidence | What to do |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Lithium prescription | Unknown. | 47% of 62 online reports involved seizures. | Case report Very low certainty 15 | Do not combine without a doctor; reports suggest a real seizure risk. |
| Antidepressants such as SSRIs, and MAOIs prescription | Overlap in serotonin systems is expected, but no interaction study was read for this page. | Not verified. | Not read Not enough evidence | Ask a doctor or pharmacist. Do not stop any medicine on your own. |
| Alcohol, cannabis and other drugs recreational | Not studied here. | Poison-centre data link mixing substances with higher admission rates for mushroom edibles. | Observational Low certainty 12 | Mixing substances makes outcomes less predictable. |
Who should check first 5
| Situation | Advice | Evidence |
|---|---|---|
| History of psychosis, mania or bipolar disorder (or a close family history) | Excluded from psilocybin trials. Talk to a doctor. | Systematic review 10 |
| Heart disease or high blood pressure | Psilocybin raises blood pressure and heart rate (NIDA). | Authoritative guidance 20 |
| Pregnancy and breastfeeding | No safety data (NIDA). | Authoritative guidance 20 |
| Taking lithium | Reports of seizures. See Interactions. | Case report 15 |
| Driving or operating machinery | NIDA warns of dangerous behaviour including unsafe driving. | Authoritative guidance 20 |
Overdose, product quality and regulators
Summary. NIDA describes psilocybin as having low toxicity, meaning breathing failure or heart attack are unlikely, while saying real health risks exist. For this species no toxicity study was found. The largest danger to a person handed or finding a wild mushroom is that it is the wrong species.
Animal. Not reviewed.
Human doses studied. Not given here.
High dose or long term signals. Not reviewed.
Overdose response. Not reviewed; seek emergency care for severe effects.
Genotoxicity. Not read.
Mushrooms and sclerotia of unknown origin may not be the species on the label, and edible products are unregulated.
Names. DNA checks of 94 museum Psilocybe specimens found names largely unreliable, even at genus level. 1
Edibles. 362 poison-centre reports in 2023-2024; ingredients often unlisted; NIDA cites CDC reports of toxic chemicals in some candies. 12 20
| Body | Action | Date |
|---|---|---|
| US Drug Enforcement Administration (21 CFR 1308.11) (United States) | Psilocybin (code 7437) and psilocyn (code 7438) are listed in Schedule I. The listing names the chemicals; state laws are not covered. source | 2026-10-25 |
| United Nations Convention on Psychotropic Substances, 1971 (International) | Psilocin (psilotsin) and psilocybine are listed in Schedule I. The mushrooms are not named in the schedule text read. source | 2026-10-25 |
When to get medical help
- Anyone who has eaten a wild or unknown mushroom and develops vomiting, diarrhea or belly pain, even if they feel better later: call poison control or emergency services at once and keep a sample if safe. Amatoxin poisoning can seem to improve before the liver fails.
- Chest pain, seizure, very high temperature, confusion that does not clear, or loss of consciousness: call your local emergency number now.
- Thoughts of suicide or self-harm after use: call your local emergency number or crisis line.
- In the US, Poison Help is 1-800-222-1222 (poison.org). Numbers elsewhere were not verified here; use your local emergency number.
If someone may be poisoned or in a crisis, contact a clinician or emergency service straight away. In the US, Poison Control is 1-800-222-1222.
General information only, not medical advice. Ask a clinician or pharmacist before use, especially with medicines, in pregnancy or with a health condition. See the Natural Remedy Safety guide.
Frequently asked questions
What is Psilocybe mexicana?
Why is it important in history?
What is its connection to the Mazatec people?
The mushrooms are part of the heritage of the Mazatec people of the Sierra Mazateca in Oaxaca, Mexico, through whom the world learned of them in the 1950s. Sellers call them a sacred medicine, and a Mazatec source says the knowledge was given, not sold. Sacred practice is the Mazatec's to explain.
Does it treat depression or anxiety?
Is it safe?
Can it be mistaken for deadly mushrooms?
How strong is it?
Unknown for the species as a whole. A lab measured two fruiting bodies from one collection, and the authors say levels in mushrooms are extremely variable.
What are sclerotia?
Who should avoid psilocybin mushrooms?
Is it the same as Psilocybe cubensis?
Is it legal?
Is it addictive?
NIDA says research suggests psilocybin does not typically lead to addiction. It can still cause harm.
Explore by health goal
Editorial transparency
- Written by
- AlternativeMed editorial team. Research compiled with AI assistance, then checked against source records.
- Medical review
- None. This page has not been reviewed by a physician or pharmacist.
- First published
- 2026-10-25
- Last substantive update
- 2026-10-25
- How we research
- We read PubMed abstracts and the full text of the 2022 lab study that measured this species, read NIDA, the US federal drug schedule and the 1971 UN Convention schedule, and checked the name and synonyms in GBIF (which carries Species Fungorum Plus and Catalogue of Life) and compounds in PubChem. Index Fungorum and MycoBank could not be read directly. Some historical papers were read as titles only. Certainty ratings are the compiler's own reading.
- How we rate evidence
- See "How we rate evidence" in the Evidence tab.
- Independence
- No product is promoted. No affiliate links are shown. This page is information, not encouragement to use anything, and does not teach identification, growing or foraging.
Sources 21
Each source was opened and checked. Where we read only the abstract, it says so. The small numbers in the text point here.
- Bradshaw AJ, Backman TA, Ramírez-Cruz V et al. DNA Authentication and Chemical Analysis of Psilocybe Mushrooms Reveal Widespread Misdeterminations in Fungaria and Inconsistencies in Metabolites.. Appl Environ Microbiol. 2022. PMID 36445079. DOI 10.1128/aem.01498-22. (abstract)
- Diaz JH. Amatoxin-Containing Mushroom Poisonings: Species, Toxidromes, Treatments, and Outcomes.. Wilderness Environ Med. 2018. PMID 29325729. DOI 10.1016/j.wem.2017.10.002. (abstract)
- Dörner S, Rogge K, Fricke J et al. Genetic Survey of Psilocybe Natural Products.. Chembiochem. 2022. PMID 35583969. DOI 10.1002/cbic.202200249. (abstract)
- Freitas RR, Gotsis ES, Gallo AT et al. The safety of psilocybin-assisted psychotherapy: A systematic review.. Aust N Z J Psychiatry. 2025. PMID 39670342. DOI 10.1177/00048674241289024. (abstract)
- GBIF Secretariat. GBIF Backbone Taxonomy record: Psilocybe mexicana R.Heim (key 5242538), synonyms and occurrence counts, retrieved 2026-10-25. GBIF API. 2026. (api)
- García de Teresa M. Selling the Priceless Mushroom: A History of Psilocybin Mushroom Trade in the Sierra Mazateca (Oaxaca). Journal of Illicit Economies and Development 4(2):177-190. 2022. DOI 10.31389/jied.101. (web-page)
- Gotvaldová K, Borovička J, Hájková K et al. Extensive Collection of Psychotropic Mushrooms with Determination of Their Tryptamine Alkaloids.. Int J Mol Sci. 2022. PMID 36430546. DOI 10.3390/ijms232214068. (full-text (Europe PMC PMC9693126))
- Haro-Luna MX, Ruan-Soto F, Ramírez-Cruz V et al. Current use of holy mushrooms of the genus Psilocybe in a Zapotec community in Oaxaca, Mexico.. IMA Fungus. 2025. PMID 40453385. DOI 10.3897/imafungus.16.148070. (abstract)
- Heim R, Brack A, Kobel H. Determinism of carpophore and sclerote formation in culture of Psilocybe mexicana Heim, a hallucinogenic agaric of Mexico and demonstration of psilocybine and psilocine (English title on PubMed).. C R Hebd Seances Acad Sci. 1958. PMID 13537389. (n/a)
- Hinkle JT, Graziosi M, Nayak SM et al. Adverse Events in Studies of Classic Psychedelics: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis.. JAMA Psychiatry. 2024. PMID 39230883. DOI 10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2024.2546. (abstract)
- Hofmann A, Heim R, Brack A et al. Psilocybin, a psychotropic substance from the Mexican mushroom Psilocybe mexicana Heim (German-language title record).. Experientia. 1958. PMID 13537892. DOI 10.1007/BF02159243. (title-only)
- Jorgenson DM, Santos Leon E, Vakkalanka JP et al. Psychoactive mushroom edibles: trends and toxicities reported to the United States National Poison Data System, 2023-2024.. Clin Toxicol (Phila). 2026. PMID 41493095. DOI 10.1080/15563650.2025.2599402. (abstract)
- Leonard JB, Anderson B, Klein-Schwartz W. Does getting high hurt?. J Psychopharmacol. 2018. PMID 30182795. DOI 10.1177/0269881118793086. (abstract)
- NCBI PubChem. PubChem compound records: psilocybin (CID 10624), psilocin (4980), baeocystin (161359), norbaeocystin (9795063), aeruginascin (60208480). PubChem REST. 2026. (api)
- Nayak SM, Gukasyan N, Barrett FS et al. Classic Psychedelic Coadministration with Lithium, but Not Lamotrigine, is Associated with Seizures: An Analysis of Online Psychedelic Experience Reports.. Pharmacopsychiatry. 2021. PMID 34348413. DOI 10.1055/a-1524-2794. (abstract)
- Pellegrini M, Rotolo MC, Marchei E et al. Magic truffles or Philosopher's stones: a legal way to sell psilocybin?. Drug Test Anal. 2013. PMID 22887928. DOI 10.1002/dta.1400. (abstract)
- Sakashita Y, Abe K, Katagiri N et al. Effect of psilocin on extracellular dopamine and serotonin levels in the mesoaccumbens and mesocortical pathway in awake rats.. Biol Pharm Bull. 2015. PMID 25342005. DOI 10.1248/bpb.b14-00315. (abstract)
- Seibold PS, Dörner S, Fricke J et al. Genetic regulation of L-tryptophan metabolism in Psilocybe mexicana supports psilocybin biosynthesis.. Fungal Biol Biotechnol. 2024. PMID 38664850. DOI 10.1186/s40694-024-00173-6. (abstract)
- United Nations. Convention on Psychotropic Substances, 1971 (INCB-hosted PDF, text read 2026-10-25). INCB. 1971. (full-text)
- n/a. NIDA: Psilocybin (Magic Mushrooms) (page read 2026-10-25). n/a. 2026. (full-text)
- n/a. US eCFR: 21 CFR 1308.11 Schedule I (version dated 2026-10-20). n/a. 2026. (full-text)
