Psychedelic Therapy · Plant
Anadenanthera (yopo and cebil)
Anadenanthera peregrina and Anadenanthera colubrina · also called Yopo, cohoba, paricá (A. peregrina); vilca, cebil, curupay, angico (A. colubrina)
Anadenanthera are South American trees whose seeds contain bufotenine and related tryptamines. Orinoco and Andean peoples have used them for ritual snuff for thousands of years. The research is mostly archaeology and chemistry. There is no clinical trial and no human safety study. Reviews warn of possible heart and nerve toxicity, and bufotenine is on the US Schedule I list.
General information, not medical advice. Last substantive update · Not medically reviewed. A named clinician has not signed off on this page. Needs Indigenous and cultural review. How this page is made
About Anadenanthera (yopo and cebil)
Anadenanthera peregrina (yopo) and A. colubrina (vilca, cebil) are South American trees with seeds that contain bufotenine. They have been used as ritual snuff for thousands of years by named peoples. There is no clinical trial. Reviews warn of possible toxicity; bufotenine is on the US Schedule I list.
Danger first: controlled seed alkaloids, with no human safety data
The seeds contain bufotenine. A 2026 review says seed alkaloids can have significant toxic effects, with potential cardiotoxic and neurotoxic effects. A 2023 review says the seeds may be toxic, though toxicity tests of seed extracts did not show it.
In the lab, bufotenin increased how hard and how fast heart tissue contracts, in mouse and human atrial tissue. That is not proof of harm in people, but nobody has measured the heart effects of the snuff.
No clinical trial, poison-centre series or case report of the snuff was found in the sources read. We found no source that measures harm to the nose or vomiting, so we say nothing about their frequency. Absence of data is not safety.
What these trees are
Anadenanthera peregrina (yopo) and Anadenanthera colubrina (vilca, cebil, curupay) are legume trees of South America. Both are accepted species in GBIF. The seeds are the part used as a ritual snuff. Bark, leaf and gum are used in folk medicine.
Reviews list bufotenine in the seeds, and DMT and 5-MeO-DMT as reported in A. colubrina var. cebil. We say 5-MeO-DMT only as that 2026 review does; we have not checked the primary papers.
What research shows
The research is mostly anthropology, archaeology and chemistry. There is no clinical trial of the seeds or snuff.
One reviewer concludes self-experiments show purified bufotenine has visionary activity. Another says direct human evidence of hallucinogenic activity seems lacking. Both are reviews of uncontrolled work.
Bark, gum and leaf extracts show anti-inflammatory and antimicrobial effects in lab and animal work only.
Ancient evidence from the Andes
Seeds, tubes and trays found in the Andes suggest use about 3,000 years ago. At Chavín de Huántar in Peru, chemical analysis of 23 artifacts from a sealed gallery found bufotenine, DMT and nicotine in six. The authors call it the northernmost direct evidence of vilca use in the pre-Hispanic Andes.
A bundle from south-west Bolivia dated to about 1000 CE carried traces of bufotenine, DMT, harmine and cocaine. Residues show a plant touched an object. They do not show how it was used or who used it. A commentary notes it cannot be shown that vilca and tobacco were used together.
Tradition belongs to the peoples who keep it
Many Orinoco peoples use yopo, including the Piaroa and the Cuiva, for whom it is tied to their narratives, cosmology and identity. Piaroa shamans combine it with the caapi vine. The Guaraní, Tupí and Wichi use A. colubrina var. cebil in healthcare and ceremony, according to a 2026 review.
This page describes the tradition only as sources state and gives no methods. Tradition is not clinical evidence.
Law differs by country and changes
The US federal Schedule I list names bufotenine (we read the text on 2026-10-25). The Schedule I text does not mention the Anadenanthera trees. Other countries' rules were not checked. This is not legal advice.
A 2023 review says A. colubrina is a Brazilian medicinal species with priority for conservation and that use must be controlled to limit environmental impact.
At a glance
Traditional uses history, not proof
- Yopo, a ritual snuff, used by Orinoco peoples including the Piaroa and Cuiva (Rodd 2002; Rodd & Sumabila 2011).
- Vilca used in the Andes for about 3,000 years, shown by seeds, tubes and trays (Carod-Artal 2007).
- Cebil used by the Guaraní, Tupí and Wichi in healthcare and ceremony (González 2026).
- Bark used in folk medicine for respiratory conditions (Delices 2023).
Studied for research
- Visionary effects of bufotenine: disputed, insufficient evidence
- Caapi vine added to the snuff: low, self-experiments only
- Ancient ritual use: moderate archaeological evidence (history, not a benefit)
- Bark, gum and leaf extracts: lab and animal only, very low
- Heart effects of bufotenine: lab signal, very low
Main compounds
- Bufotenine (5-hydroxy-DMT), seeds
- DMT (as reviews state)
- 5-MeO-DMT (listed in one 2026 review)
- Flavonoids, triterpenes in bark and leaf
Common forms
- Not covered: this page gives no preparation or use instructions.
Research links: Chavín de Huántar residue study (PNAS 2025) · Ritual bundle, Bolivia (PNAS 2019) · A. colubrina review (2023) · A. colubrina var. cebil review (2026) · Bufotenine heart tissue study (lab) · US Schedule I text (eCFR) · Research Library · Genes & Biomarkers Library
What it is and its history
- Accepted scientific name
- Anadenanthera peregrina (yopo) and Anadenanthera colubrina (vilca, cebil)
- Naming authority
- A. peregrina (L.) Speg.; A. colubrina (Vell.) Brenan
- Synonyms
- Mimosa peregrina L.; Piptadenia peregrina (L.) Benth.; Anadenanthera peregrina var. falcata; Mimosa colubrina Vell.; Piptadenia colubrina (Vell.) Benth.
- Common names
- Yopo, cohoba, paricá, niopo (Spanish/Portuguese (GBIF vernacular records)); Vilca, cebil, curupay, huilco, angico (Spanish/Portuguese (GBIF vernacular records))
- Family or group
- Fabaceae (legume family). The seeds are the psychoactive part; the bark and gum are used in folk medicine (Delices 2023).
- Classification
- Plantae > Tracheophyta > Magnoliopsida > Fabales > Fabaceae > Anadenanthera > Anadenanthera peregrina; Anadenanthera colubrina
- Native range
- A. colubrina var. cebil: dry forests and savannas of Brazil, Argentina, Paraguay and Bolivia, and the Andean highlands of Peru and Chile (González 2026). A. peregrina: tied to the Orinoco region in the ethnographic papers read; its full range was not checked.
- Habitat
- Not checked beyond the above.
- What it looks like
- Part used: Seeds (psychoactive); bark, leaf, gum, fruit (folk medicine). This page does not describe preparation.
- Look-alikes and adulterants
- Name: Other legume trees, and other plants called angico or paricá; Note: Common names are shared across species. A name or photo is never proof of what a plant contains.
- Sustainability and conservation
- A. colubrina is on Brazil's list of medicinal species with priority for conservation (Delices 2023). IUCN and CITES not checked.
Traditional use and history history, not clinical proof
| Tradition or era | Documented use | Source |
|---|---|---|
| Andes, about 3,000 years ago to about 1000 CE | A review says seeds were used about 3,000 years ago; seeds were found in tombs of about 1000 BC in northern Chile and Argentina; tubes and trays came from San Pedro de Atacama and Tiwanaku. Chemical analysis found bufotenine in a Bolivian ritual bundle of about 1000 CE. | Carod-Artal 2007; Miller 2019 |
| Chavín de Huántar, Peru (ca. 1200-400 BCE) | Bufotenine, DMT and nicotine residues were found on bone tubes from a sealed gallery, and the authors call it the northernmost direct evidence of vilca use in the Andes. | Rick et al. 2025; Whitridge 2025 |
| Orinoco peoples: Piaroa and Cuiva | Yopo is a ritual snuff from A. peregrina seeds, tied to each people's cosmology and identity; Piaroa shamans combine it with caapi. We describe it as the peoples' own tradition and do not describe their methods. | Rodd 2002, 2008; Rodd & Sumabila 2011 |
| Guaraní, Tupí and Wichi | A review lists these peoples as using A. colubrina var. cebil in healthcare, ceremony and healing. | González 2026 |
Traditional use shows how it was used. It does not show that it works or is safe today.
What is inside, and how it may work
What it contains and how those compounds act in cells and animals. Laboratory and animal mechanisms are not proven effects in people.
Main compounds
| Compound | Family | Where it is concentrated | Activity studied | Level of evidence |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Bufotenine (5-hydroxy-N,N-dimethyltryptamine) | tryptamine | Seeds Not stated in sources read. | Binds 5-HT2A/2C receptors in lab work; whether it is hallucinogenic alone in people is disputed. 3 5 8 | Laboratory and review |
| DMT (N,N-dimethyltryptamine) | tryptamine | Seeds (as reviews state) Not stated. | Serotonin receptor agonist (see our DMT profile). 4 | Review |
| 5-MeO-DMT | tryptamine | Listed in A. colubrina var. cebil Not stated. | Not measured in the snuff. 4 | Review (2026), not verified from the primary papers |
| Anadenanthoflavone and other flavonoids, triterpenes, saponins | various | Bark, leaf Not stated. | Lab activity only. 3 4 | Laboratory |
Mechanisms, receptors and pathways
| Target or pathway | Gene or receptor | What was found | Level |
|---|---|---|---|
| 5-HT2A and 5-HT2C receptors | HTR2A / HTR2C | 5 | Laboratory research |
| 5-HT4 receptors in the heart | HTR4 | Bufotenin raised contraction force and rate in mouse and human atrial tissue. 7 | In vitro / mouse |
| MAO | MAOA | MAO-blocking beta-carbolines are proposed to prolong tryptamines; supported by self-experiments only. 8 | Human (self experiment) |
Absorption, metabolism and elimination
- Absorption
- A 1985 review says experimental confirmation of nasal tryptamine absorption was awaited. A commentary says effects are short-lived, about 20 minutes.
- Distribution
- A review suggests poor passage into the brain.
- Metabolism
- Broken down by MAO (stated as hypothesis).
- Elimination
- Not established.
- Bioavailability
- Not established.
Isolated compounds versus whole extracts
Most human data are on purified bufotenine, not the seeds or snuff. Seeds hold several tryptamines, and the snuff may contain other additions. The plant itself has not been the studied product in any trial.
Nutritional composition
Not a food or nutrient.
1 moderate certainty1 low certainty2 very low certainty1 not enough evidence
What was looked at
The 5 benefits and uses checked for Anadenanthera (yopo and cebil), each with how strong the evidence is. Tap one to open it.
- Psychoactive (visionary) effects of the seed tryptaminesNot enough evidence
- Does adding the caapi vine strengthen the snuff?Low certainty
- Archaeological evidence of ancient snuff useModerate certainty
- Bark, gum and leaf extracts (lab and animal research)Very low certainty
- Effects of bufotenine on the heart (lab)Very low certainty
Lab markers tracked in the studies
Bufotenine residue on ancient snuff tubesHeart muscle contraction force (lab)
What is Anadenanthera (yopo and cebil) good for?
The topics researchers have studied and how strong the evidence is. None is proven as a benefit. Read every row with the Safety tab.
Benefits, one by one
Each card is a research question, not a promise. Tap a goal to filter. Open a card to see the studies, doses and limits.
Psychoactive (visionary) effects of the seed tryptamines
Not enough evidenceThe seeds hold bufotenine and related tryptamines. Whether bufotenine alone is truly hallucinogenic in people is disputed. One reviewer says self-experiments show visionary activity. Another says direct human evidence seems lacking. Neither is a clinical trial.
2 studiesNot covered. This page gives no amounts, preparation or ways of using…
Studies, doses and limits
What the trials found
Only uncontrolled self-experiments with purified bufotenine, reviewed by one author. No controlled trial of seeds or snuff.
Results
Ott (2001): visionary activity established in his view. McBride (2000): direct human evidence of hallucinogenic activity seems lacking.
Effect sizes as reported
No effect sizes; no controlled data.
Why this rating
Two reviews disagree and the human data are uncontrolled self-experiments with isolated bufotenine, not the seeds or snuff.
Form and dose studied
Not covered. This page gives no amounts, preparation or ways of using the seeds.
Who was studied
Small numbers of self-experimenters; lab receptor data.
Limits
Uncontrolled, unblinded, no safety monitoring, isolated compound is not the same as the seeds.
Why researchers looked
Peoples of the Orinoco and the Andes have used the seeds as a ritual snuff, so scientists asked which compounds explain the effects.
Traditional use
Used by many Orinoco peoples, including the Piaroa and Cuiva (yopo), and, in the Andes, by ancient cultures (vilca). This is described by the peoples' own traditions first; science only measures the chemistry.
Proposed mechanism In vitro / review
Bufotenine binds the 5-HT2A and 5-HT2C serotonin receptors in lab work, like other psychedelics; a review suggests poor passage into the brain may explain mixed human reports.
A proposed mechanism does not show that the effect happens in people.
The seeds contain bufotenine, a controlled substance in the US, and reviews warn of possible heart and nerve toxicity. Nothing here is advice to use them.
Does adding the caapi vine strengthen the snuff?
Low certaintyPiaroa shamans add the ayahuasca vine (Banisteriopsis caapi) to yopo and take it before the snuff. Scientists suggested its MAO-blocking compounds would make the tryptamines act longer or stronger. Self-experiments with purified compounds were read as supporting this. Another review found a nasal harmine test gave no measurable blood levels.
4 studiesNot covered. This page gives no amounts, preparation or ways of using…
Studies, doses and limits
What the trials found
Uncontrolled self-experiments (25 reported by one author). No controlled trial.
Results
Ott (2001) says the hypothesis was confirmed by 25 self-experiments. De Smet (1985) says experimental confirmation of nasal tryptamine efficacy was still awaited and nasal harmine gave no measurable blood levels in one test.
Effect sizes as reported
No effect sizes.
Why this rating
Uncontrolled self-experiments and ethnography agree on the idea; no controlled human data; the sources are old and do not all agree.
Form and dose studied
Not covered. This page gives no amounts, preparation or ways of using the seeds.
Who was studied
Self-experimenters; Piaroa shamans (ethnography).
Limits
Self-report, tiny numbers, isolated compounds.
Why researchers looked
Tryptamines such as bufotenine are normally broken down by the enzyme MAO. If a plant blocks MAO, effects may change.
Traditional use
Piaroa shamans combine yopo and caapi as part of their own knowledge; they use only the vine's inner bark layer and see caapi as important for empathy (Rodd 2002, 2008).
Proposed mechanism Hypothesis / self experiment
MAO-blocking beta-carbolines from the vine could slow breakdown of tryptamines (hypothesis from 1967).
A proposed mechanism does not show that the effect happens in people.
Combining an MAO-blocker with other serotonin-raising substances or medicines can be dangerous; see the Safety tab and our ayahuasca vine profile.
Archaeological evidence of ancient snuff use
Moderate certaintySeeds, snuff tubes and trays and chemical traces of bufotenine show people in the Andes used Anadenanthera in ritual for around 3,000 years. At Chavín de Huántar in Peru, residues of vilca and tobacco were found on bone tubes dated to about 1200-400 BCE.
5 studiesNot covered. This page gives no amounts, preparation or ways of using…
Studies, doses and limits
Results
Rick 2025: bufotenine, DMT and nicotine residues in 6 of 23 artifacts. Miller 2019: bufotenine, DMT, harmine and cocaine traces in a bundle from about 1000 CE in Bolivia. Carod-Artal 2007: seeds in tombs from about 1000 BC.
Effect sizes as reported
Counts only (6 of 23 artifacts).
Why this rating
Direct chemical and microscopic evidence on real artifacts, from independent labs in the 2025 study; it proves presence on an object, not use or effects.
Form and dose studied
Not covered. This page gives no amounts, preparation or ways of using the seeds.
Who was studied
Archaeological objects.
Limits
Residues do not show who used them, how often or why.
Why researchers looked
Archaeologists ask which plants ancient cultures used, and how far plants and knowledge travelled.
Traditional use
Chavín, Tiwanaku and San Pedro de Atacama cultures left tubes, trays and seeds; living peoples of the Orinoco and Amazon continue related practice.
Proposed mechanism Laboratory / archaeological
Not a mechanism question; chemical markers (bufotenine, DMT) are used to identify the plant.
A proposed mechanism does not show that the effect happens in people.
Not applicable. Ancient use is history, not evidence of safety.
Bark, gum and leaf extracts (lab and animal research)
Very low certaintyIn lab and animal tests, bark, leaf and gum extracts of A. colubrina showed anti-inflammatory, pain-relieving, antimicrobial, antidiarrheal and wound-healing effects. This is preliminary. The bark is used traditionally for respiratory conditions. No human trial was found.
2 studiesNot covered. This page gives no amounts, preparation or ways of using…
Studies, doses and limits
Results
Lab and animal assays listed in two reviews; individual studies were not opened.
Effect sizes as reported
Not reported in the abstracts.
Why this rating
Lab and animal work only, summarised in reviews we read only as abstracts.
Form and dose studied
Not covered. This page gives no amounts, preparation or ways of using the seeds.
Who was studied
Cell and animal models (rodents).
Limits
Preliminary; mechanisms not shown; species names and preparations vary.
Why researchers looked
Parts other than the seeds are used in folk medicine in South America.
Traditional use
Reviews say bark is mostly used for respiratory conditions (Delices 2023). The Guaraní, Tupí and Wichi use the species in healthcare and ritual healing (González 2026).
Proposed mechanism Lab / animal
Not established. Reviews say mechanisms are not shown.
A proposed mechanism does not show that the effect happens in people.
Seeds and bark are different products; bark results say nothing about seed safety.
Effects of bufotenine on the heart (lab)
Very low certaintyIn heart tissue from mice made to carry the human 5-HT4 receptor, and in human atrial tissue in the dish, bufotenin increased the force and rate of contraction. Lab concentrations are not the same as snuff use, but it raises a reason for caution about heart effects.
1 studiesNot covered. This page gives no amounts, preparation or ways of using…
Studies, doses and limits
Results
Bufotenin raised contractile force in mouse and human atrial preparations.
Effect sizes as reported
Not given in the abstract.
Why this rating
One lab study on isolated tissue.
Form and dose studied
Not covered. This page gives no amounts, preparation or ways of using the seeds.
Who was studied
Mouse hearts; human atrial strips.
Limits
Not living people; no dose link to snuff.
Why researchers looked
Reviews warn the seeds may be cardiotoxic, so researchers tested whether bufotenine acts on heart receptors.
Traditional use
Not part of any traditional description we read.
Proposed mechanism Lab / animal
Stimulates 5-HT4 receptors on heart muscle; an MAO-blocking drug increased the effect.
A proposed mechanism does not show that the effect happens in people.
This is a safety signal, not a benefit.
Connections to the rest of health
How Anadenanthera (yopo and cebil) connects to the rest of our health knowledge graph. Every link says what kind of connection it is. A safety link (for example to the liver) is a warning, not a benefit. A study that merely mentions a topic never creates a benefit link.
Explore every connection: goals, body systems, organs, symptoms, genes
B. Body systems
| Connected to | Kind of connection | Evidence status | Context | Studies |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Nervous System | Biological association | Not enough evidence | Studied for: Psychoactive (visionary) effects of the seed tryptamines Studied for: Does adding the caapi vine strengthen the snuff? | 8 5 14 10 11 9 6 1 2 13 |
| Immune System | Biological association | Very low certainty | Studied for: Bark, gum and leaf extracts (lab and animal research) | 3 4 |
| Cardiovascular System | Biological association | Very low certainty | Studied for: Effects of bufotenine on the heart (lab) | 7 |
I. Biomarkers
| Connected to | Kind of connection | Evidence status | Context | Studies |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Bufotenine residue on ancient snuff tubes | Biological association | Moderate certainty | Measured in trials: detected. A lab change is not the same as a health benefit. | 9 6 |
| Heart muscle contraction force (lab) | Biological association | Very low certainty | Measured in trials: increase. A lab change is not the same as a health benefit. | 7 |
J. Genes, receptors and enzymes
| Connected to | Kind of connection | Evidence status | Context | Studies |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 5-HT2A | Preliminary mechanism | In vitro | Main target of classic psychedelics. | 5 |
L. Active compounds
| Connected to | Kind of connection | Evidence status | Context | Studies |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Bufotenine (5-hydroxy-N,N-dimethyltryptamine) | Biological association | Laboratory and review | Binds 5-HT2A/2C receptors in lab work; whether it is hallucinogenic alone in people is disputed. Preparation or compound: Seeds |
3 5 8 |
| DMT (N,N-dimethyltryptamine) | Biological association | Review | Serotonin receptor agonist (see our DMT profile). Preparation or compound: Seeds (as reviews state) |
4 |
| 5-MeO-DMT | Biological association | Review (2026), not verified from the primary papers | Not measured in the snuff. Preparation or compound: Listed in A. colubrina var. cebil |
4 |
| Anadenanthoflavone and other flavonoids, triterpenes, saponins | Biological association | Laboratory | Lab activity only. Preparation or compound: Bark, leaf |
3 4 |
Each connection is stored with the ingredient, the connected record, the kind of connection, the evidence status, the supporting studies, the preparation or compound involved, and a review date (last reviewed October 25, 2026).
Evidence at a glance: what the research found for 5 outcomes
Each outcome below is one thing researchers measured. Certainty is how far the evidence can be trusted, not how well it works. The full studies are on the next tab.
The evidence
The research centre for Anadenanthera (yopo and cebil). Every record here was checked against PubMed or the publisher's page; we never list a study we have not verified.
Evidence by outcome
Bars show how many studies we found for each outcome, not how well it works. People are added up across trials only (reviews are not added, to avoid double counting).
How we rate evidence
High certainty
Several well-run trials or reviews agree; further research is unlikely to change the picture much.
Moderate certainty
Good trials point the same way, but some doubt remains.
Low certainty
Small, short or inconsistent trials. The finding could change with better research.
Very low certainty
Very little or very weak human data. Treat as a possibility only.
Mixed findings
Trials or reviews disagree with each other.
Not enough evidence
Not enough human research to say either way.
Evidence against
Good research found no benefit, or found harm.
We take the reviewers' own risk-of-bias and GRADE statements where they exist, and otherwise judge from study size, design, consistency, directness and whether a product matches what is sold. Many publications do not make evidence high. Method note: We searched PubMed, read the abstracts of 14 papers (plus the open-access full text of the Chavín papers), read the US eCFR Schedule I text and checked plant names in GBIF.
Study library: every study we checked 17
| Study | Design | People | Product, dose, length | Result |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Carod-Artal 2007 [Ritual use of Anadenanthera seeds among South America natives]. Neurologia · PMID 17610173 |
Historical review (Spanish language article, English abstract) review |
Archaeological, historical and ethnographic records of Anadenanthera (vilca, yopo) use | Anadenanthera seeds seed Not reported here |
The abstract says seeds were used in South America about 3,000 years ago; seeds were found in tombs from about 1000 BC in northern Chile and Argentina; ceramics and snuff tubes were found at San Pedro de Atacama and at the Tiwanaku ceremonial centre; and the plant is used today by several groups in the Orinoco basin (yopo) and in the Brazilian and Colombian Amazon. It concludes vilca was and still is used by native shamans. Methods, limits and fundingOutcomes: Evidence of ritual use Limitations: Short historical review; the abstract gives no site-level detail. Funding and conflicts: Not stated in the abstract. Read: abstract |
| Chamakura 1994 Bufotenine - A Hallucinogen in Ancient Snuff Powders of South America and a Drug of Abuse on the Streets of New York City. Forensic Sci Rev · PMID 26270149 |
Review and forensic case series forensic samples |
42 42 street samples seized in New York City (and a few in Florida), 1992-1994 |
Street material containing bufotenine Not reported here |
Bufotenine was identified in 42 samples sold as hashish. The author says the material was probably derived from seeds of Anadenanthera, that it appeared to be smoked with marijuana in New York City, and that multiple chromatography peaks suggested added ingredients. Bufotenine is said to be a Schedule I substance under New York and federal law (as of 1994). It also notes bufotenine was identified in 1,200-year-old archaeological material from a tomb in northern Chile. Methods, limits and fundingOutcomes: Identification of bufotenine in seized samples; literature review Limitations: 1994 report; legal statements are dated and are superseded by the current regulator text. 'Probably' derived from seeds: not proven. Funding and conflicts: Not stated in the abstract. Read: abstract |
| Delices 2023 Anadenanthera colubrina (Vell) Brenan: Ethnobotanical, phytochemical, pharmacological and toxicological aspects. J Ethnopharmacol · PMID 36162548 · DOI |
Narrative review review |
Published studies on Anadenanthera colubrina (ethnobotany, chemistry, pharmacology, toxicology) | Anadenanthera colubrina bark, seed, gum, leaf and fruit extracts bark, seed, gum, leaf, fruit Not reported here |
Bark is mostly used for respiratory conditions and seeds as entheogens. About 56 compounds were identified; bufotenine was isolated from seeds. Anti-inflammatory, pain-relieving, antidiarrheal, wound-healing, antimicrobial and other effects were found in lab and animal tests only. Leaf, bark, gum and fruit extracts looked safe in toxicity tests, while the seeds, because of bufotenine, may be toxic although this was not found in toxicology assays of seed extracts. The review says the species is on Brazil's list of medicinal species with priority for conservation and that use should be controlled to limit environmental impact. Methods, limits and fundingOutcomes: Traditional use, compounds, lab and animal pharmacology, toxicity Limitations: Review of mostly preliminary lab and animal work; mechanisms unclear. Funding and conflicts: Not stated in the abstract. Read: abstract |
| González 2026 Beyond a Psychotropic Plant: Exploring the Ethnomedicinal Value of Anadenanthera colubrina var. cebil. Mini Rev Med Chem · PMID 41936090 · DOI |
Narrative review review |
Published studies on A. colubrina var. cebil | A. colubrina var. cebil bark, leaf, seed and gum bark, leaf, seed, gum Not reported here |
Lists the Guaraní, Tupí and Wichi as peoples who use the species in healthcare, ceremony and healing. Lists bufotenine, DMT and 5-MeO-DMT among its alkaloids, plus triterpenes, steroids, saponins and flavonoids. Bark and leaf extracts show anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial and other effects in preclinical models. Seed alkaloids are described as potent psychoactives that can have significant toxic effects, with potential cardiotoxic and neurotoxic effects. The gum shows low toxicity. Methods, limits and fundingOutcomes: Ethnomedicine, compounds, preclinical pharmacology, toxicity Limitations: Narrative review; preclinical evidence; the abstract does not say which studies found each alkaloid. Funding and conflicts: Not stated in the abstract. Read: abstract |
| McBride 2000 Bufotenine: toward an understanding of possible psychoactive mechanisms. J Psychoactive Drugs · PMID 11061684 · DOI |
Review review |
Neuropharmacology of bufotenine | Bufotenine Not reported here |
The author says direct human experimental evidence of hallucinogenic activity seems lacking. Methods, limits and fundingOutcomes: Receptor activity and possible reasons for reported psychoactivity Limitations: Review from 2000; mixes lab and modelling data. Funding and conflicts: Not stated in the abstract. Read: abstract |
| Miller 2019 Chemical evidence for the use of multiple psychotropic plants in a 1,000-year-old ritual bundle from South America. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A · PMID 31061128 · DOI |
Archaeological chemical analysis (LC MS/MS) archaeological |
One ritual bundle from a rock shelter in the Lípez Altiplano, south-west Bolivia, radiocarbon dated to about 1000 CE | Residues on an archaeological bundle Not reported here |
Bufotenine, DMT, harmine and cocaine (with its breakdown product benzoylecgonine) were found, suggesting at least three plants were part of the bundle. The authors note it as a documented case of harmine and DMT together, the two main ingredients of ayahuasca, and say the plants came from distant ecological areas. Methods, limits and fundingOutcomes: Chemical traces of psychoactive compounds Limitations: One bundle from one site; residues cannot show how the plants were used. Funding and conflicts: Research support (non-US government) declared. Read: abstract |
| Neumann 2023 Cardiovascular effects of bufotenin on human 5-HT4 serotonin receptors in cardiac preparations of transgenic mice and in human atrial preparations. Naunyn Schmiedebergs Arch Pharmacol · PMID 36754881 · DOI |
Laboratory study (transgenic mouse hearts and human atrial tissue) in vitro / mouse |
Mouse heart preparations expressing human 5-HT4 receptors; isolated human atrial tissue | Isolated bufotenin (bufotenine) Not reported here |
Bufotenin increased the force of contraction and beating rate in the transgenic mouse heart tissue and increased contraction force in isolated human atrial tissue, through 5-HT4 receptors. An MAO-blocking drug (pargyline) increased the effects. Methods, limits and fundingOutcomes: Heart contraction force and beating rate Limitations: Isolated tissue, not living people; concentrations are lab concentrations, not comparable with snuff use. Funding and conflicts: Not stated in the abstract. Read: abstract |
| Ott 2001 Pharmañopo-psychonautics: human intranasal, sublingual, intrarectal, pulmonary and oral pharmacology of bufotenine. J Psychoactive Drugs · PMID 11718320 · DOI |
Review of human self experiments (psychonautic bioassays) human (self-experiment) |
Self-experiments with purified bufotenine, some combined with MAO-blocking harmala alkaloids | Purified bufotenine, sometimes with harmaline or harmine Not reported here |
The author summarises his own and others' self-experiments, concludes that visionary activity of bufotenine has been established, and says the 1967 Holmstedt-Lindgren idea that MAO-blocking beta-carbolines from Banisteriopsis caapi boost the snuffs was confirmed by 25 self-experiments. Methods, limits and fundingOutcomes: Psychoactive activity; effect of added MAO-blocking compounds Limitations: Uncontrolled self-experiments by the author; no blinding, tiny numbers, not a clinical study. Another review (McBride 2000) says direct human evidence of hallucinogenic activity seems lacking. Funding and conflicts: Not stated in the abstract. Read: abstract |
| Rick 2025 Pre-Hispanic ritual use of psychoactive plants at Chavín de Huántar, Peru. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A · PMID 40324091 · DOI |
Archaeological chemical and microbotanical analysis archaeological |
23 23 artifacts (bone tubes and related items) from a sealed underground gallery at Chavín de Huántar, Peru, ca. 1200-400 BCE |
Residues on archaeological artifacts Not reported here |
Chemical analysis of 23 artifacts found DMT, bufotenine (5-hydroxy-DMT) and nicotine in six; the authors read these as markers of Anadenanthera (vilca, here A. colubrina var. cebil) and tobacco. They report direct evidence of psychoactive plants in bone tubes used as inhalers, the northernmost direct evidence of vilca and Nicotiana use in the pre-Hispanic Andes. Methods, limits and fundingOutcomes: Plant microremains and alkaloid residues on ancient artifacts Limitations: Residues show a plant was present on the object, not how it was used or by whom. Traces only. Funding and conflicts: Not stated in the abstract. Read: full-text (open access) |
| Rodd 2002 Snuff synergy: preparation, use and pharmacology of yopo and Banisteriopsis caapi among the Piaroa of southern Venezuela. J Psychoactive Drugs · PMID 12422937 · DOI |
Ethnographic field study human (ethnographic) |
Piaroa shamans of southern Venezuela | Yopo (Anadenanthera peregrina seeds) and Banisteriopsis caapi seed; vine cuttings Not reported here |
Piaroa shamans include Banisteriopsis caapi cuttings in the yopo preparation and take caapi before inhaling the snuff, in proportion to the strength of visions wanted. The author argues this combined use is pharmacologically and ethnobotanically significant. Methods, limits and fundingOutcomes: Traditional preparation and use Limitations: Ethnography; one people; author's interpretation of pharmacology. Funding and conflicts: Not stated in the abstract. Read: abstract |
| Rodd 2008 Reassessing the cultural and psychopharmacological significance of Banisteriopsis caapi: preparation, classification and use among the Piaroa of Southern Venezuela. J Psychoactive Drugs · PMID 19004422 · DOI |
Review with ethnographic fieldwork human (ethnographic) |
Piaroa snuff-using society, southern Venezuela | Banisteriopsis caapi in snuff context cambium of the vine Not reported here |
Piaroa shamans use only caapi's cambium, recognise at least five varieties and emphasise its importance for heightening empathy. Piaroa do not prepare DMT-containing decoctions; they are a snuff-using society. Methods, limits and fundingOutcomes: Cultural and pharmacological significance of caapi Limitations: Ethnography; one people. Funding and conflicts: Not stated in the abstract. Read: abstract |
| Rodd 2011 Yopo, ethnicity and social change: a comparative analysis of Piaroa and Cuiva yopo uset. J Psychoactive Drugs · PMID 21615006 · DOI |
Comparative ethnographic study human (ethnographic) |
Piaroa and Cuiva communities of the Orinoco region | Yopo (Anadenanthera peregrina seeds) seed Not reported here |
Most Orinocoan groups, including the Cuiva and Piaroa, use yopo. It is tied to the narratives central to each group's cosmology and identity. Cuiva use is also a means of resisting persecution; Piaroa attitudes are shaped by shamanic ethics and missionary activity. Methods, limits and fundingOutcomes: Cultural role and social change Limitations: Ethnography of two peoples; not a medical study. Funding and conflicts: Research support (non-US government) declared. Read: abstract |
| Whitridge 2025 Did the vilca/tobacco snuff combination at Chavín aim for an "ayahuasca effect"? Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A · PMID 40953264 · DOI |
Expert commentary (letter) commentary |
Commentary on the Chavín de Huántar findings | Vilca and tobacco residues on snuff tubes Not reported here |
The author calls the vilca (Anadenanthera colubrina) and tobacco residues on some of the same Chavín tubes a valuable contribution, says it cannot be shown that the two were used in the same episodes, and suggests tobacco contains MAO-blocking compounds that could have prolonged the effect. This is an argument, not a measurement. Methods, limits and fundingOutcomes: Whether vilca and tobacco might have been combined for a longer-lasting effect Limitations: Letter with no abstract; read in full through the open-access PMC copy. Opinion and interpretation. Funding and conflicts: Declares no competing interest. Read: full-text (open access) |
| de Smet 1985 A multidisciplinary overview of intoxicating snuff rituals in the western hemisphere. J Ethnopharmacol · PMID 3887041 · DOI |
Review review |
Intoxicating snuff rituals of the western hemisphere | Ritual snuff ingredients including Anadenanthera seed Not reported here |
Anadenanthera is listed among plants where psychoactive principles are well established and ritual snuff use is confirmed or quite probable. The review says that for nasal tryptamine alkaloids, experimental confirmation of efficacy was still awaited, and that nasal harmine (a MAO blocker) gave no measurable blood levels in one self-experiment. Methods, limits and fundingOutcomes: Ethnobotany and nasal pharmacokinetics Limitations: 1985 review; later work may have added data. Funding and conflicts: Not stated in the abstract. Read: abstract |
| n/a 2026 US Code of Federal Regulations, 21 CFR 1308.11 (Schedule I), read through the eCFR API (current to 21 Oct 2026) n/a · Source |
Regulator text n/a |
United States federal law | n/a |
Section 1308.11(d), hallucinogenic substances, item (17) lists Bufotenine (DEA code 7433), with other names including N,N-dimethylserotonin and 5-hydroxy-N,N-dimethyltryptamine. The word Anadenanthera does not appear in the section text. Methods, limits and fundingOutcomes: Whether bufotenine and Anadenanthera are listed Limitations: Reading the listing only; no legal interpretation of seeds or plants. Read: full-text |
| n/a 2026 GBIF Backbone Taxonomy: Anadenanthera peregrina (L.) Speg., species key 2952808 (read through the GBIF API 2026-10-25) n/a · Source |
Registry or database n/a |
n/a | n/a |
Accepted species in family Fabaceae (order Fabales). Synonyms include Mimosa peregrina L., Piptadenia peregrina (L.) Benth., Acacia niopo and Anadenanthera peregrina var. falcata. GBIF vernacular records include yopo, cohoba, paricá and angico. Methods, limits and fundingOutcomes: Accepted name, family, synonyms, common names Read: full-text |
| n/a 2026 GBIF Backbone Taxonomy: Anadenanthera colubrina (Vell.) Brenan, species key 2952823 (read through the GBIF API 2026-10-25) n/a · Source |
Registry or database n/a |
n/a | n/a |
Accepted species in family Fabaceae (order Fabales). Synonyms include Mimosa colubrina Vell., Acacia colubrina and Piptadenia colubrina. GBIF vernacular records include cebil, vilca, curupay, huilco and angico. Methods, limits and fundingOutcomes: Accepted name, family, synonyms, common names Read: full-text |
What we do not know yet
- No controlled human trial of Anadenanthera seeds or snuff for any purpose.
- Human data on bufotenine are uncontrolled self-experiments or very old; two reviews disagree on whether it is hallucinogenic alone.
- Which compounds in the seeds matter most (bufotenine, DMT, 5-MeO-DMT) has not been measured in people taking the snuff.
- No clinical, case-report or poison-centre data for the snuff in the sources read.
- Nasal tissue and vomiting risks are not quantified in any source read.
How new research is added
New studies are found by a saved PubMed search and reviewed by a person before changing this page. Regulator statements are rechecked on a schedule.
Lab markers
What changed in blood or saliva tests during trials. A changed number is not the same as feeling or being healthier, and we give no "normal ranges".
Other 2
Bufotenine residue on ancient snuff tubes
Detected in trials
A chemical trace used to show that Anadenanthera material touched an archaeological object.
Moderate certaintyResults and what it means
Why it was measured
Bufotenine, with DMT, is used as a marker for Anadenanthera in archaeology.
Statistical vs. clinical meaning
A history marker, not a health measure.
Safety implication
None for readers. It does not say how safe the plant was.
| Study | Result | People | Product |
|---|---|---|---|
| 9 | DMT, bufotenine and nicotine were found in 6 of 23 artifacts from Chavín de Huántar. | 23 artifacts, ca. 1200-400 BCE | Residue analysis, no living people |
| 6 | Bufotenine, DMT, harmine and cocaine traces were found in a ritual bundle dated to about 1000 CE. | One bundle, south-west Bolivia | LC-MS/MS residue analysis |
Heart muscle contraction force (lab)
Increase in trials
How hard isolated heart muscle contracts in a dish.
Very low certaintyResults and what it means
Why it was measured
To test whether bufotenine acts on heart receptors.
Statistical vs. clinical meaning
Isolated tissue only.
Safety implication
Suggests heart effects deserve caution; not proof of harm.
| Study | Result | People | Product |
|---|---|---|---|
| 7 | Bufotenin increased contraction force in human atrial preparations and in mouse heart tissue with human 5-HT4 receptors. | Isolated tissue | Bufotenin applied in the lab |
Safety
What studies and official sources say about side effects, medicines and who should check first. Each point shows what kind of evidence it comes from.
Main points to know 3
- Danger first: the seeds contain a controlled tryptamine and may harm the heart and nerves. The seeds contain bufotenine, and reviews also list DMT and 5-MeO-DMT in A. colubrina var. cebil. A 2026 review says these seed alkaloids can have significant toxic effects, with potential cardiotoxic and neurotoxic effects. A 2023 review says the seeds may be toxic because of bufotenine, although toxicity tests of seed extracts did not show this. In the lab, bufotenin increased heart contraction force and rate. No human safety study of the seeds or snuff exists. Strength varies and nobody can say any amount is safe. Review 4 3 7
- Mixing with MAO-blocking plants or medicines. Self-experiments reviewed by Ott describe stronger effects when MAO-blocking beta-carbolines are added. MAO blockers can interact dangerously with antidepressants and other serotonin-raising substances. How strongly this applies to the snuff has not been measured. See our ayahuasca vine profile for case reports. Mechanism and self experiment 8 7
- Street material can be mixed with other things. A 1994 forensic report found bufotenine in 42 samples sold as hashish in New York City, probably from Anadenanthera seeds, with signs of added ingredients and apparent smoking with marijuana. Forensic report 2
Side effects 4
| Effect | How often | Severity and recovery | Evidence |
|---|---|---|---|
| Heart effects (lab signal only) Bufotenin raised heart muscle contraction force and rate in mouse and human atrial tissue. A 2026 review lists potential cardiotoxic effects. No human cases found in the abstracts read. | Not known | Unknown in people Unknown | Laboratory 7 4 |
| Nerve toxicity (potential) Listed as potential in a 2026 review; the abstract gives no cases. | Not known | Unknown Unknown | Review 4 |
| Runny nose and mucus flow (shown in ancient art) The Chavín paper describes carved heads showing characteristic effects of ingestion, a snarl and mucus flow. This is an interpretation of art, not a medical record. | Not known | Not stated Not stated | Archaeological/iconography 9 |
| Nasal tissue damage, vomiting and other short-term effects We read no source that quantifies nasal injury or vomiting from the snuff. A 1985 review says experimental confirmation of nasal tryptamine efficacy was still awaited. This is a gap, not a sign of safety. | Not established | Not established Not established | None found 14 |
Liver
No liver injury reports were found for the seeds or snuff in the sources read.
How often. Not established.
This is a safety connection. It is not evidence that Anadenanthera (yopo and cebil) supports liver health.
Medicines and supplements 2
| With | Why it matters | Importance | Evidence | What to do |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Antidepressants and other serotonin-raising medicines; MAO inhibitors prescription | Bufotenine is a serotonin-like tryptamine. MAO-blocking compounds (including harmine from the caapi vine, which is added in some traditions) can raise tryptamine levels. | Not measured for the snuff. In the lab, an MAO blocker increased bufotenin's effect on heart tissue. | Laboratory and self experiment Very low certainty 7 8 | Ask a doctor or pharmacist before combining anything. This page does not advise use. |
| Banisteriopsis caapi (ayahuasca vine) and other MAO-blocking plants herbal | Harmala alkaloids block MAO-A. | Piaroa shamans combine yopo and caapi in their own tradition; self-experiments suggest stronger effects. | Ethnography and self experiment Low certainty 10 8 | See the ayahuasca vine profile for the interaction evidence. |
Who should check first 2
| Situation | Advice | Evidence |
|---|---|---|
| Taking antidepressants or MAO inhibitors, or having heart disease or a psychiatric illness | No safety data exist for these groups. Talk to a doctor; do not infer safety from tradition. | Inference from mechanism 4 7 |
| Pregnancy, breastfeeding, children | No human data were found in the sources read. | None found |
Overdose, product quality and regulators
Summary. Seed alkaloids are described as potentially toxic; extracts of bark, leaf, gum and fruit showed low toxicity in tests, and seed extract toxicology assays have not shown toxicity.
Amounts. No safe or toxic amount is established in any source we read.
Onset and course. Not established in sources read. A commentary says the strongest effects of vilca inhalation are short-lived, about 20 minutes (Whitridge 2025, quoting another commentary).
Repeated use. Not established.
Animal data. Reviews mention low toxicity of gum, bark and leaf extracts in animals.
Toxic parts. Seeds (alkaloids). The other parts are not described as psychoactive.
Not read. Original toxicology studies, case reports, poison-centre data.
Seed content varies by species, and tree identification can be wrong. Street products can contain other ingredients.
Street samples. Samples sold as hashish contained bufotenine and apparently other ingredients. 2
Species and variety. Two species and varieties (A. peregrina, A. colubrina var. cebil) are used; reviews list different alkaloids for each, and the abstracts do not say how much. 4 3
| Body | Action | Date |
|---|---|---|
| US Drug Enforcement Administration, via 21 CFR 1308.11 (eCFR) (United States) | Schedule I, section (d) hallucinogenic substances, lists bufotenine (DEA code 7433). The word Anadenanthera does not appear in the section text. source | 2026-10-21 |
When to get medical help
- Trouble breathing, collapse, a seizure, chest pain or a very fast or irregular heartbeat: call emergency services now (911 in the US, 999 in the UK).
- US: Poison Help 1-800-222-1222. UK: NHS 111 if unsure whether something is harmful (numbers copied from our ayahuasca vine profile, where they were read in 2026-10-25).
- After mixing with antidepressants or other drugs: severe agitation, high fever, muscle stiffness or a racing heart need urgent care.
- Poison help numbers for other countries were not checked.
If someone may be poisoned or in a crisis, contact a clinician or emergency service straight away. In the US, Poison Control is 1-800-222-1222.
General information only, not medical advice. Ask a clinician or pharmacist before use, especially with medicines, in pregnancy or with a health condition. See the Natural Remedy Safety guide.
Frequently asked questions
What is Anadenanthera?
What is in the seeds?
Is bufotenine hallucinogenic?
How old is the use of vilca in the Andes?
Which peoples use yopo or cebil?
Why do some shamans add the caapi vine?
Is the snuff safe?
Does it harm the nose or cause vomiting?
We found no source that measures this, so we cannot say how common it is. That is a gap.
Is it legal?
The US lists bufotenine in Schedule I. Other countries were not checked and laws change. This is not legal advice.
Does it treat any condition?
No. No clinical trial exists. Lab work on bark, gum and leaf is preliminary.
Are the trees threatened?
A 2023 review says A. colubrina is a Brazilian medicinal species with priority for conservation. IUCN and CITES status were not checked.
How does this relate to DMT and 5-MeO-DMT?
They are related tryptamines. See their profiles. This page does not give amounts or methods.
Explore by health goal
Editorial transparency
- Written by
- AlternativeMed editorial team. Research compiled with AI assistance, then checked against PubMed records, GBIF and the US eCFR.
- Medical review
- None. This page has not been reviewed by a physician or pharmacist.
- First published
- 2026-10-25
- Last substantive update
- 2026-10-25
- How we research
- We searched PubMed, read the abstracts of 14 papers (plus the open-access full text of the Chavín papers), read the US eCFR Schedule I text and checked plant names in GBIF.
- How we rate evidence
- See "How we rate evidence" in the Evidence tab.
- Independence
- No product is promoted. No affiliate links are shown and none will be added. This page gives no dose, preparation, growing, foraging or sourcing advice.
Sources 17
Each source was opened and checked. Where we read only the abstract, it says so. The small numbers in the text point here.
- Carod-Artal FJ, Vázquez Cabrera CB. [Ritual use of Anadenanthera seeds among South America natives].. Neurologia. 2007. PMID 17610173. (abstract)
- Chamakura RP. Bufotenine - A Hallucinogen in Ancient Snuff Powders of South America and a Drug of Abuse on the Streets of New York City.. Forensic Sci Rev. 1994. PMID 26270149. (abstract)
- Delices M, Muller JAI, Arunachalam K, et al. Anadenanthera colubrina (Vell) Brenan: Ethnobotanical, phytochemical, pharmacological and toxicological aspects.. J Ethnopharmacol. 2023. PMID 36162548. DOI 10.1016/j.jep.2022.115745. (abstract)
- González RB, Ojeda GA, Miragliotta AMG, et al. Beyond a Psychotropic Plant: Exploring the Ethnomedicinal Value of Anadenanthera colubrina var. cebil.. Mini Rev Med Chem. 2026. PMID 41936090. DOI 10.2174/0113895575418590260116110240. (abstract)
- McBride MC. Bufotenine: toward an understanding of possible psychoactive mechanisms.. J Psychoactive Drugs. 2000. PMID 11061684. DOI 10.1080/02791072.2000.10400456. (abstract)
- Miller MJ, Albarracin-Jordan J, Moore C, et al. Chemical evidence for the use of multiple psychotropic plants in a 1,000-year-old ritual bundle from South America.. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2019. PMID 31061128. DOI 10.1073/pnas.1902174116. (abstract)
- Neumann J, Schulz N, Fehse C, et al. Cardiovascular effects of bufotenin on human 5-HT4 serotonin receptors in cardiac preparations of transgenic mice and in human atrial preparations.. Naunyn Schmiedebergs Arch Pharmacol. 2023. PMID 36754881. DOI 10.1007/s00210-023-02414-8. (abstract)
- Ott J. Pharmañopo-psychonautics: human intranasal, sublingual, intrarectal, pulmonary and oral pharmacology of bufotenine.. J Psychoactive Drugs. 2001. PMID 11718320. DOI 10.1080/02791072.2001.10400574. (abstract)
- Rick JW, Lema VS, Echeverría J, et al. Pre-Hispanic ritual use of psychoactive plants at Chavín de Huántar, Peru.. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2025. PMID 40324091. DOI 10.1073/pnas.2425125122. (full-text (open access))
- Rodd R. Snuff synergy: preparation, use and pharmacology of yopo and Banisteriopsis caapi among the Piaroa of southern Venezuela.. J Psychoactive Drugs. 2002. PMID 12422937. DOI 10.1080/02791072.2002.10399963. (abstract)
- Rodd R. Reassessing the cultural and psychopharmacological significance of Banisteriopsis caapi: preparation, classification and use among the Piaroa of Southern Venezuela.. J Psychoactive Drugs. 2008. PMID 19004422. DOI 10.1080/02791072.2008.10400645. (abstract)
- Rodd R, Sumabila A. Yopo, ethnicity and social change: a comparative analysis of Piaroa and Cuiva yopo uset.. J Psychoactive Drugs. 2011. PMID 21615006. DOI 10.1080/02791072.2011.566499. (abstract)
- Whitridge P. Did the vilca/tobacco snuff combination at Chavín aim for an "ayahuasca effect"?. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2025. PMID 40953264. DOI 10.1073/pnas.2521671122. (full-text (open access))
- de Smet PA. A multidisciplinary overview of intoxicating snuff rituals in the western hemisphere.. J Ethnopharmacol. 1985. PMID 3887041. DOI 10.1016/0378-8741(85)90060-1. (abstract)
- n/a. US Code of Federal Regulations, 21 CFR 1308.11 (Schedule I), read through the eCFR API (current to 21 Oct 2026). n/a. 2026. (full-text)
- n/a. GBIF Backbone Taxonomy: Anadenanthera peregrina (L.) Speg., species key 2952808 (read through the GBIF API 2026-10-25). n/a. 2026. (full-text)
- n/a. GBIF Backbone Taxonomy: Anadenanthera colubrina (Vell.) Brenan, species key 2952823 (read through the GBIF API 2026-10-25). n/a. 2026. (full-text)
