Foods High in Choline: Eggs, Meat, Fish, Soy and Other Sources
Foods high in choline, from eggs and liver to soybeans and cruciferous vegetables, with amounts per serving, US and EU intake references and what is known about plant-based diets.
Content last updated . This page has not been medically reviewed.
Overview
Choline is an essential nutrient that is not a B vitamin (see Choline). The NIH Office of Dietary Supplements (ODS, US) says the main US dietary sources are animal-based products rich in choline: meat, poultry, fish, dairy and eggs. It adds that cruciferous vegetables and certain beans are also rich in choline, and that nuts, seeds and whole grains are other sources. [1] EFSA (the EU food safety agency) lists eggs, meat, fish, whole grains, vegetables and fruit, and fats and oils. [2]About half the choline eaten in the US is in the form of phosphatidylcholine. [1] Lecithin, rich in phosphatidylcholine, is a common food additive used as an emulsifier in processed foods such as gravies and salad dressings. [1]
Food amounts
Amounts are milligrams of choline per serving as listed in the ODS table (ODS page updated 2022), which cites USDA FoodData Central. The Daily Value on US labels is 550 mg for adults and children age 4 and older; it is a label reference, not a personal target. [1]| Food | Serving | Choline (mg) | Source and year |
|---|---|---|---|
| Beef liver, pan fried | 3 ounces | 356 | ODS 2022 [1] |
| Egg, hard boiled | 1 large | 147 | ODS 2022 [1] |
| Beef top round, lean, braised | 3 ounces | 117 | ODS 2022 [1] |
| Soybeans, roasted | ½ cup | 107 | ODS 2022 [1] |
| Chicken breast, roasted | 3 ounces | 72 | ODS 2022 [1] |
| Cod, Atlantic, cooked | 3 ounces | 71 | ODS 2022 [1] |
| Potato, red, baked with skin | 1 large | 57 | ODS 2022 [1] |
| Wheat germ, toasted | 1 ounce | 51 | ODS 2022 [1] |
| Kidney beans, canned | ½ cup | 45 | ODS 2022 [1] |
| Quinoa, cooked | 1 cup | 43 | ODS 2022 [1] |
| Milk, 1% fat | 1 cup | 43 | ODS 2022 [1] |
| Brussels sprouts, boiled | ½ cup | 32 | ODS 2022 [1] |
| Broccoli, chopped, boiled | ½ cup | 31 | ODS 2022 [1] |
| Shiitake mushrooms, cooked | ½ cup | 27 | ODS 2022 [1] |
| Peanuts, dry roasted | ¼ cup | 24 | ODS 2022 [1] |
| Brown rice, cooked | 1 cup | 19 | ODS 2022 [1] |
| Apple, raw, with skin | ½ cup | 2 | ODS 2022 [1] |
Liver is a very rich source, but the NHS (UK) advises avoiding liver if you are pregnant. [3] Ask your midwife or doctor, and see Prenatal and postnatal vitamins.
Eggs, plants and vegan diets
- Eggs and animal foods give the most choline per serving in the table above. [1]
- Plant foods such as soybeans, kidney beans, quinoa, wheat germ, Brussels sprouts and broccoli provide smaller amounts per serving. [1]
- What studies show about vegan intake. An observational study of 230 women in Israel who ate a consistent diet (54 vegan) used a food frequency questionnaire in the third trimester of pregnancy and found lower choline intake in vegan women, 270 mg compared with 394 mg in non-vegan women. [4] That is one hospital's study with self-reported intake, so it cannot be applied to all vegan diets. A US Department of Agriculture modeling study of food patterns for breastfeeding women found that vegetarian adaptations, including vegan, did not contain enough choline to meet the US reference intakes, and neither did the original pattern. [5] Proper evidence not found for a typical choline intake in vegans in general: PubMed searches for choline intake in vegans, vegetarians and plant-based diets found only these small and specific studies. Pregnant and breastfeeding vegans should discuss choline with a clinician.
See Vegetarian and vegan supplements and Food-first nutrition.
Intake references
These are published levels for stated groups, with their source. They are not advice for any one person.| Group | Level | Source and year |
|---|---|---|
| US and Canada, men 19 and older | Adequate Intake (AI) 550 mg a day | ODS 2022 [1] |
| US and Canada, women 19 and older | AI 425 mg a day | ODS 2022 [1] |
| US and Canada, pregnancy, ages 14 and up | AI 450 mg a day | ODS 2022 [1] |
| US and Canada, breastfeeding, ages 14 and up | AI 550 mg a day | ODS 2022 [1] |
| US and Canada, adults 19 and older | Tolerable Upper Intake Level (UL) 3,500 mg a day from food and supplements | ODS 2022 [1] |
| EU, adults and adolescents 15 to 17 | AI 400 mg a day | EFSA 2016 [2] |
| EU, pregnancy / breastfeeding | AI 480 mg / 520 mg a day | EFSA 2016 [2] |
The ODS says the US upper limit is based on amounts linked to low blood pressure and fishy body odor, and that it applies to healthy children and adults but not to people taking high doses under medical supervision. [1] Most people in the US consume less than the AI, according to the ODS; an analysis of 2013 to 2014 survey data found average adult intakes from foods and beverages of 402 mg in men and 278 mg in women. [1] Pregnancy details: Choline in pregnancy and brain development. All reference types are explained in RDA, AI, DV and UL.
Frequently asked questions
What foods are highest in choline?
In the ODS table, beef liver (356 mg per 3 ounces) and a hard-boiled egg (147 mg) are the highest, followed by lean beef, roasted soybeans and chicken. [1]
Where does choline come from on a vegan diet?
Soybeans, beans, quinoa, wheat germ, cruciferous vegetables, nuts and seeds contain it. [1] Studies found lower choline intake in vegan pregnancy and in modeled vegan menus, but evidence on typical vegan intakes is limited. [4][5]
Is the choline reference the same everywhere?
No. For adult women the US and Canada AI is 425 mg [1] while EFSA's is 400 mg for adults and adolescents 15 to 17. [2]
Can you get too much choline?
The US upper limit for adults is 3,500 mg a day from food and supplements, set using low blood pressure and fishy body odor. [1]
Do I need a choline supplement?
Most people in the US consume less than the AI, per the ODS. [1] Whether a supplement suits you depends on diet, pregnancy and health; ask a clinician or pharmacist.
More details: evidence, limits and cautions
The details behind this page: cautions, limits of the evidence and where sources disagree. Open any note to read it.
Supplements, safety and who should ask
- Supplements. Typical amounts in supplements range from 10 mg to 250 mg, and no studies compare how well the different forms are absorbed. [1] See Choline supplement forms.
- Medicines. The ODS says choline is not known to have clinically relevant interactions with medications. [1] Still tell a pharmacist about any supplement (Medication interactions).
- Liver and kidney conditions, pregnancy, children. The sources read give no separate food limits. Choline is also linked with liver health, covered at Choline deficiency, fatty liver and muscle damage. Ask a clinician before using supplements if you are pregnant, have liver or kidney disease, or are choosing for a child.
- Cooking. Proper evidence not found on how much choline is kept when foods are cooked; PubMed searches for choline retention and cooking returned no relevant study, and the ODS fact sheet gives no figure.