Natural Oils & Butters · Carrier oil
Kukui Nut Oil
Aleurites moluccanus (L.) Willd. (seed oil) · also called Kukui oil, candlenut oil, Aleurites moluccana seed oil.
Kukui nut oil is pressed from the seed of the kukui (candlenut) tree, Hawaii's state tree, and is used on skin and hair. Hawaiian sources describe long traditional use, but human research is tiny: one 15-woman eyelash trial and one psoriasis pilot that did not beat mineral oil. The raw nuts are not a remedy. They are toxic when eaten and have been linked to vomiting and heart block, and candlenut supplements have been found adulterated.
General information, not medical advice. Last substantive update · Not medically reviewed. A named clinician has not signed off on this page. How this page is made
About Kukui Nut Oil
Kukui nut oil is a pale plant oil pressed from the kernel of the kukui (candlenut) tree, Aleurites moluccanus. It is a cosmetic ingredient and a heritage oil in Hawaii. Human research is small and mostly null or very early, so treat it as a plain skin and hair oil, not as a treatment. The raw nuts are toxic.
What it is
Kukui is the Hawaiian name for the candlenut tree, Aleurites moluccanus (GBIF accepts this name; Aleurites moluccana is a common spelling variant). It belongs to the spurge family. The tree is not native to Hawaii but has been part of the land for centuries.
The nut is botanically a seed. Its kernel holds the oil. In one psoriasis trial the oil was about one part oleic acid to two parts linoleic acid.
Hawaiian heritage
Public Hawaiian sources describe kukui as a symbol of enlightenment, protection and peace. The first Polynesian voyagers brought it to Hawaii. The oil lit stone lamps and torches and coated fishing nets. Baked and crushed nuts give an oil used in traditional healing and lomilomi massage.
These practices belong to Hawaiian culture and are shared here with respect. They come from two public sources and do not speak for Hawaiian practitioners. One source notes that internal remedies were given very carefully by experienced people, and long use does not make eating the nuts safe.
How it is used today
It is sold as a cosmetic oil and as an ingredient in body and hair oils and serums. The eyelash trial used a serum with 0.1% oil. A psoriasis pilot used the oil on skin plaques.
Whole nuts and candlenut supplements are sold as laxatives or weight-loss aids. This page does not support that use because of the toxicity and adulteration findings above.
What the research shows
The eyelash trial found longer lashes after 4 weeks with the oil serum versus placebo serum in 15 women. It is one small trial with company employees among the authors.
The psoriasis pilot (30 people, 24 finished) found no significant difference between kukui oil and mineral oil. Two reviews each include it as one trial among several plant treatments.
Hair-growth findings come from lab-grown follicles and rats. The oil switched on the Nrf2 pathway and raised PGF2 alpha in follicles in a dish.
Rules and labels
A cosmetic safety panel concluded that 244 plant oils were safe as used in cosmetics. The abstract does not say whether kukui oil is one of them, and the full text could not be read. No rules for kukui oil from FDA, EMA or other regulators were checked for this page.
Look for the plant name (Aleurites moluccanus or moluccana) on the label, and avoid products sold as whole candlenuts for swallowing.
At a glance
Traditional uses history, not proof
- In Hawaiian and Polynesian tradition, kukui oil lit stone lamps and torches, coated fishing nets and was used in traditional healing and lomilomi massage. Hawaiian sources also describe the sap on chapped lips and cold sores. These uses belong to Hawaiian culture and are not proof of an effect.
Studied for research
- Eyelash length (serum with 0.1% oil), very low
- Plaque psoriasis (no better than mineral oil), very low
- Scalp hair growth (lab follicles and rats), insufficient
- Dry skin and skin barrier, insufficient
- Antioxidant signaling in cells, insufficient
- Traditional Hawaiian uses, insufficient
Main compounds
- Linoleic acid (omega-6)
- Oleic acid (omega-9)
- Other polyunsaturated fats, amounts vary
Common forms
- Cold-pressed oil
- Refined oil
- Serums, hair and body oils with kukui oil
- Whole nuts and candlenut supplements (not the cosmetic oil; avoid)
Research links: Eyelash and hair-follicle study, Scientific Reports (abstract) · Kukui oil for psoriasis, pilot trial (abstract) · Heart block after eating a candlenut (abstract) · Candlenut supplements adulterated with yellow oleander (abstract) · An Eye on Plants: Kukui, National Tropical Botanical Garden · Canoe Plants of Ancient Hawai'i: Kukui · Research Library · Genes & Biomarkers Library
What it is and its history
- Accepted scientific name
- Aleurites moluccanus
- Naming authority
- (L.) Willd.
- Synonyms
- Name: Aleurites moluccana; Note: Spelling variant used in many papers and on labels; GBIF matches it to the accepted name.
- Common names
- Kukui (Hawaiian); Kukui nut oil (English); Candlenut oil (English); Aleurites moluccana seed oil (English (label name))
- Family or group
- Euphorbiaceae (the spurge family)
- Classification
- Plantae > Euphorbiaceae > Aleurites > Aleurites moluccanus
- Native range
- Indo-Malay region (Maluku Islands named as the source of early collections); not native to Hawaii, where it naturalized long ago (garden article).
- Habitat
- Not checked beyond the garden article.
- What it looks like
- Roots: Not checked.; Stems: Not checked.; Leaves: Silvery green foliage (garden article).; Flowers: Small white five-petaled flowers (cultural source).; Fruit: Hard, ridged, walnut-sized nut that is botanically a seed inside a thick leathery coat; the pale kernel holds the oil.
- Cultivation
- Planted widely in Hawaii and the tropical Pacific.
- Harvest and processing
- Oil is pressed from the kernel. Cold-pressed and refined oils exist; the sources read do not compare them. Traditional Hawaiian practice baked and crushed the nuts and let the oil rise.
- Look-alikes and adulterants
- Name: Yellow oleander (Cascabela thevetia) seeds; Note: Toxic seeds found mixed into commercial candlenut supplements.; Name: Brazil nut (Bertholletia excelsa); Note: Supplements sold as Brazil nut were also found adulterated in the same study.
- Sustainability and conservation
- Not checked.
Traditional use and history history, not clinical proof
| Tradition or era | Documented use | Source |
|---|---|---|
| Hawaiian and Polynesian tradition | First Polynesian voyagers brought kukui to Hawaii. The oil of the kernels lit stone lamps and torches; fishing nets were coated with it; bark, flowers and nuts were used as medicine, and kukui is a symbol of enlightenment and Hawaii's state tree. Baked and crushed nuts give an oil used in traditional healing and lomilomi massage. These uses belong to Hawaiian culture and are shared here with respect, as described by public sources. | s-canoeplants |
| Hawaiian classroom teaching (Kauai) | A Hawaiian studies teacher quoted by the garden describes making lei from leaves, burning nuts as candles, and crushing baked nuts for oil used in healing and lomilomi. | s-ntbg |
| Modern cosmetics | The 2026 lab paper says kukui oil is now widely used as a cosmetic ingredient and has been traditionally used to promote hair growth. | p42218237 |
Traditional use shows how it was used. It does not show that it works or is safe today.
What is inside, and how it may work
What it contains and how those compounds act in cells and animals. Laboratory and animal mechanisms are not proven effects in people.
Main compounds
| Compound | Family | Where it is concentrated | Activity studied | Level of evidence |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Linoleic acid PubChem 5280450 | omega-6 polyunsaturated fatty acid | Seed oil 41.27% of the kukui oil used in the psoriasis pilot, as reported in a 2022 review. | Fat supply for the skin; the review links higher linoleic acid to a friendlier effect on inflamed skin in general. 14 | Review |
| Oleic acid PubChem 445639 | omega-9 monounsaturated fatty acid | Seed oil 21.21% of the oil in the psoriasis pilot, as reported in the 2022 review. | A common skin-oil fat; no kukui-specific effect measured. 14 | Review |
| Alpha-linolenic acid PubChem 5280934 | omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid | Seed oil Named as a fat in kukui oil in secondary summaries; the amount was not read from a source. | No kukui-specific outcome measured. 14 | Review |
Mechanisms, receptors and pathways
| Target or pathway | Gene or receptor | What was found | Level |
|---|---|---|---|
| Nrf2 / AKR1C / PGF2 alpha | NFE2L2 (Nrf2), AKR1C1-3, PTGFR | In human hair follicles and skin cells in a dish, kukui oil activated Nrf2, raised AKR1C enzymes and PGF2 alpha, and raised cell-division markers. 10 | Laboratory research |
| Skin barrier fat balance | n/a | A review proposes that oils high in linoleic acid may help inflamed skin and high-oleic oils may harm it. Not tested for kukui oil. 14 | Review |
Absorption, metabolism and elimination
- Absorption
- Not described.
- Distribution
- Not described.
- Metabolism
- Not described.
- Elimination
- Not described.
- Bioavailability
- Not described.
Isolated compounds versus whole extracts
A 0.1% oil serum, a 5% oil in a lipid-particle carrier, plain oil, raw nuts and candlenut supplements are different products. A result for one does not carry over to another.
Nutritional composition
Kukui seeds hold about 61 to 64% oil by weight. The oil is mostly polyunsaturated fat. Raw seeds are toxic and are not a food.
2 very low certainty4 not enough evidence
What was looked at
The 6 benefits and uses checked for Kukui Nut Oil, each with how strong the evidence is. Tap one to open it.
- Eyelash length (serum with kukui oil)Very low certainty
- Hair growth in a dish and in ratsNot enough evidence
- Psoriasis (plaque psoriasis, oil on the skin)Very low certainty
- Dry skin and skin barrier (as a moisturizer)Not enough evidence
- Antioxidant (Nrf2) signaling in cellsNot enough evidence
- Traditional Hawaiian and Polynesian usesNot enough evidence
Lab markers tracked in the studies
Eyelash lengthPsoriasis severity (PASI and clinical scores)PGF2 alpha and AKR1C enzymes in follicles
What is Kukui Nut Oil good for?
What the human research shows for each use, and how strong it is. None of it is proven. Read the Safety tab too, because the raw nuts are toxic.
Benefits, one by one
Each card is a research question, not a promise. Tap a goal to filter. Open a card to see the studies, doses and limits.
Eyelash length (serum with kukui oil)
Very low certaintyOne small 4-week trial in 15 healthy women found longer eyelashes with a serum holding 0.1% kukui oil than with a plain placebo serum on the other eye. Three authors work for the company behind the test products. It is one short trial of a serum, not of plain oil.
1 studiesA serum containing 0.1% kukui seed oil. This is the product tested, n…
Studies, doses and limits
What the trials found
A randomized, double-blind, left-right comparison in 15 healthy Japanese women aged 27 to 48 compared a serum with 0.1% kukui seed oil with a matching placebo serum for 4 weeks.
Results
Eyelash length rose significantly more with the oil serum than with the placebo serum. Questionnaires reported better length, thickness and volume. No adverse effects were reported. The change is shown in a figure and no number was read.
Effect sizes as reported
Not read; shown in a figure in the paper.
Why this rating
One small, short trial, registered after it began, with the application schedule described inconsistently and company employees among the authors. No repeat trial and no scalp hair trial found.
Form and dose studied
A serum containing 0.1% kukui seed oil. This is the product tested, not advice.
Who was studied
Healthy Japanese women aged 27 to 48.
Limits
Eyelashes are not scalp hair. A serum is not the same as plain oil. Self-reported questionnaire results are open to bias.
Why researchers looked
Kukui oil is a traditional hair oil and is used in cosmetics. Researchers wanted to know if it changes hair growth and why.
Traditional use
Hawaiian sources describe the oil being used in traditional healing and lomilomi massage; hair use is not described in the sources I read.
Proposed mechanism Laboratory research
In human hair follicles kept alive in a dish, the oil raised PGF2 alpha (a signal linked to hair growth) and the enzymes that make it, and switched on the Nrf2 pathway. This is lab work, not proof of the cause in people.
A proposed mechanism does not show that the effect happens in people.
Never eat the raw nuts. Candlenut seeds are toxic when eaten. See the Safety tab.
Hair growth in a dish and in rats
Not enough evidenceIn lab-grown human hair follicles the oil increased growth signals. In rats, a lipid-particle product made with 5% candlenut oil was tested for hair growth. Neither shows that the oil grows scalp hair in people.
2 studies5% candlenut oil in the rat carrier; the oil was added to cell cultur…
Studies, doses and limits
What the trials found
Only the human follicles kept in a dish (not living people) and the eyelash trial above.
Results
Follicles treated with the oil showed a significant hair-growth effect in the dish. In rats, carrier mixes with both beeswax and cacao butter had better traits and more hair growth than a single fat; the abstract does not compare oil with no oil.
Effect sizes as reported
Not given in the abstracts read.
Why this rating
Cell and animal work only; the rat study compares carrier recipes with each other.
Form and dose studied
5% candlenut oil in the rat carrier; the oil was added to cell cultures at very low percentages. Lab settings, not advice.
Who was studied
Human scalp follicles in a dish; male white rats.
Limits
No trial of plain oil on scalp hair was found.
Why researchers looked
The oil is widely used on hair and as a cosmetic ingredient, but how it might work was unknown.
Traditional use
The oil is described as a traditional hair-growth oil in the sources read by the lab-study authors.
Proposed mechanism Laboratory research
Raised PGF2 alpha, higher activity of AKR1C enzymes, more cell-division markers (Ki67, cyclins) and Nrf2 activation in follicle cells.
A proposed mechanism does not show that the effect happens in people.
Lab and animal results do not show an effect in people.
Psoriasis (plaque psoriasis, oil on the skin)
Very low certaintyIn a 12-week pilot of 30 adults with mild plaque psoriasis, skin improved in both groups, with no significant difference between kukui oil and mineral oil. Reviews list it as one small trial among many plant treatments.
4 studiesKukui nut oil on the skin for 12 weeks. Amounts are in the paper and …
Studies, doses and limits
What the trials found
One double-blind, placebo-controlled pilot (Brown 2005): 15 people used kukui oil and 15 used mineral oil; 24 of 30 finished. A 2013 review of 12 plant-extract trials and a 2025 review of 20 herbal trials (1,115 patients) each include this one kukui trial.
Results
Both groups improved. There was no significant difference between kukui oil and the mineral oil placebo. No side effects or adverse events were reported. The 2013 review did not list kukui oil among the plant extracts with limited support; the 2025 review lists kukui oil among therapies with mixed results.
Effect sizes as reported
No significant difference; numbers not in the abstract.
Why this rating
One small pilot with a fifth lost to follow-up. It found no benefit over mineral oil, so it does not support the oil as a treatment. The authors say a larger study is needed.
Form and dose studied
Kukui nut oil on the skin for 12 weeks. Amounts are in the paper and are not given here.
Who was studied
Adults 18 to 78 with mild, stable plaque psoriasis.
Limits
Small; mineral oil is not an inactive comparator for dry skin; no do-nothing group.
Why researchers looked
Visitors to Hawaii said kukui oil eased their psoriasis, so researchers ran a small trial.
Traditional use
Kukui sap was used by Hawaiian families on chapped lips and cold sores, according to a Hawaiian cultural source. The psoriasis trial began after visitors to Hawaii said the oil helped.
Proposed mechanism None
No mechanism for psoriasis is shown in the papers read.
A proposed mechanism does not show that the effect happens in people.
Psoriasis needs a doctor's care. Do not stop prescribed treatment for an oil.
Dry skin and skin barrier (as a moisturizer)
Not enough evidenceNo trial of kukui oil on dry skin, eczema or the skin barrier was found. The only skin trial in people was a psoriasis pilot that showed no benefit over mineral oil. Kukui is rich in polyunsaturated fats, but this has not been tested for skin comfort.
2 studiesNot applicable.
Studies, doses and limits
Results
No dry-skin, eczema or barrier outcome for kukui oil was found.
Why this rating
No human trial found for this use; only a general fatty-acid idea from a review.
Limits
Only one set of fatty acid figures for kukui oil (from the psoriasis trial) was read.
Why researchers looked
Plant oils are used as moisturizers, and reviewers ask whether their fatty acids help or harm the skin barrier.
Traditional use
Hawaiian sources describe the oil used in lomilomi massage and traditional healing.
Proposed mechanism Pharmacological theory
A 2022 review of 27 trials of plant oils suggested that on inflamed skin, oils high in linoleic acid may help the barrier and oils high in oleic acid and low in linoleic acid may harm it. In one trial kukui oil was about 21% oleic and 41% linoleic acid. This is a general idea from the review; it has not been tested for kukui oil on dry skin.
A proposed mechanism does not show that the effect happens in people.
Patch test first. Do not swallow the oil as a remedy. See the Safety tab.
Antioxidant (Nrf2) signaling in cells
Not enough evidenceIn skin cells and hair follicles in a dish, kukui oil switched on Nrf2, a cell pathway that controls the body's own antioxidant defenses. The authors suggest this could matter for health, but no human antioxidant outcome was measured.
1 studiesVery low percentages of oil in cell cultures (lab settings).
Studies, doses and limits
Results
Lab cell and follicle results only.
Effect sizes as reported
Not read.
Why this rating
Cell work only.
Form and dose studied
Very low percentages of oil in cell cultures (lab settings).
Who was studied
Cells and follicles, not people.
Limits
Cell results often do not carry over to people. Three of the authors work for a cosmetics company.
Why researchers looked
Researchers followed the hair-growth effect back to the signal chain that causes it.
Traditional use
Not described in the sources read.
Proposed mechanism Laboratory research
Nrf2 activation led to higher AKR1C enzymes via antioxidant response elements in the cells, then to more PGF2 alpha.
A proposed mechanism does not show that the effect happens in people.
Lab signals only.
Traditional Hawaiian and Polynesian uses
Not enough evidenceKukui (candlenut) is a deeply valued tree in Hawaiian life, used for light, tools, dye, cloth, medicine and massage. Hawaiian cultural sources describe these uses with care. They are heritage, not clinical evidence.
2 studiesNot applicable.
Studies, doses and limits
Results
Described uses only.
Why this rating
Traditional use is not evidence that a remedy works or is safe.
Who was studied
Hawaiian and Polynesian communities.
Limits
Cultural knowledge belongs to its communities; this page cites two public sources and does not speak for Hawaiian practitioners.
Why researchers looked
Heritage uses give researchers ideas, and cultural sources should be credited to the people who keep them.
Traditional use
Kukui is Hawaii's state tree and a symbol of enlightenment, protection and peace. The first Polynesian voyagers brought it to Hawaii. The oil lit stone lamps and torches, and coated fishing nets. Hawaiian practitioners used the baked and crushed nuts for oil in traditional healing and lomilomi massage, and the sap on chapped lips, cold sores and thrush sores in children's mouths. Internal remedies were given very carefully by experienced people.
Proposed mechanism None
Not applicable.
A proposed mechanism does not show that the effect happens in people.
These are cultural practices from the Hawaiian people. Long use does not prove an effect, and eating the nuts is a risk.
Connections to the rest of health
How Kukui Nut Oil connects to the rest of our health knowledge graph. Every link says what kind of connection it is. A safety link (for example to the liver) is a warning, not a benefit. A study that merely mentions a topic never creates a benefit link.
Explore every connection: goals, body systems, organs, symptoms, genes
A. Wellness goals
| Connected to | Kind of connection | Evidence status | Context | Studies |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Hair Support | Preliminary mechanism | Very low certainty | Eyelash length (serum with kukui oil): One small 4-week trial in 15 healthy women found longer eyelashes with a serum holding 0.1% kukui oil than with a plain placebo serum on the other eye. Three authors work for the company behind the test products. It is one short trial of a serum, not of plain oil. Hair growth in a dish and in rats: In lab-grown human hair follicles the oil increased growth signals. In rats, a lipid-particle product made with 5% candlenut oil was tested for hair growth. Neither shows that the oil grows scalp hair in people. | 10 7 |
| Healthy Skin | Very low certainty | Psoriasis (plaque psoriasis, oil on the skin): In a 12-week pilot of 30 adults with mild plaque psoriasis, skin improved in both groups, with no significant difference between kukui oil and mineral oil. Reviews list it as one small trial among many plant treatments. | 3 6 2 14 | |
| Healthy Skin | Not enough evidence | Dry skin and skin barrier (as a moisturizer): No trial of kukui oil on dry skin, eczema or the skin barrier was found. The only skin trial in people was a psoriasis pilot that showed no benefit over mineral oil. Kukui is rich in polyunsaturated fats, but this has not been tested for skin comfort. | 14 3 | |
| Healthy Aging | Preliminary mechanism | Not enough evidence | Antioxidant (Nrf2) signaling in cells: In skin cells and hair follicles in a dish, kukui oil switched on Nrf2, a cell pathway that controls the body's own antioxidant defenses. The authors suggest this could matter for health, but no human antioxidant outcome was measured. | 10 |
B. Body systems
C. Body parts and organs
| Connected to | Kind of connection | Evidence status | Context | Studies |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Gut | Adverse effect or risk | Documented risk | Belly pain, vomiting and diarrhea; laxative effect. Preparation or compound: Raw candlenut seed (eaten) |
11 12 |
| Heart | Adverse effect or risk | Case report | Heart block in two case reports; yellow oleander adulteration found in supplements. Preparation or compound: Candlenut seed or supplement (eaten) |
13 11 1 |
| Hair | Biological association | Very low certainty | One small eyelash trial and lab work. Preparation or compound: Seed oil in a serum |
10 |
| Skin | Biological association | Very low certainty | One psoriasis pilot with no benefit over mineral oil. Preparation or compound: Seed oil on skin |
3 |
I. Biomarkers
| Connected to | Kind of connection | Evidence status | Context | Studies |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Eyelash length | Biological association | Very low certainty | Measured in trials: increased. A lab change is not the same as a health benefit. | 10 |
| Psoriasis severity (PASI and clinical scores) | Biological association | Very low certainty | Measured in trials: no difference between kukui oil and mineral oil. A lab change is not the same as a health benefit. | 3 |
| PGF2 alpha and AKR1C enzymes in follicles | Biological association | Not enough evidence | Measured in trials: increased in the dish. A lab change is not the same as a health benefit. | 10 |
J. Genes, receptors and enzymes
| Connected to | Kind of connection | Evidence status | Context | Studies |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| AKR1C family | Preliminary mechanism | In vitro | Enzymes that make PGF2 alpha; raised in follicles treated with kukui oil in the lab. | 10 |
L. Active compounds
| Connected to | Kind of connection | Evidence status | Context | Studies |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Linoleic acid | Biological association | Review | Fat supply for the skin; the review links higher linoleic acid to a friendlier effect on inflamed skin in general. Preparation or compound: Seed oil |
14 |
| Oleic acid | Biological association | Review | A common skin-oil fat; no kukui-specific effect measured. Preparation or compound: Seed oil |
14 |
| Alpha-linolenic acid | Biological association | Review | No kukui-specific outcome measured. Preparation or compound: Seed oil |
14 |
Each connection is stored with the ingredient, the connected record, the kind of connection, the evidence status, the supporting studies, the preparation or compound involved, and a review date (last reviewed October 25, 2026).
Evidence at a glance: what the research found for 6 outcomes
Each outcome below is one thing researchers measured. Certainty is how far the evidence can be trusted, not how well it works. The full studies are on the next tab.
The evidence
The research centre for Kukui Nut Oil. Every record here was checked against PubMed or the publisher's page; we never list a study we have not verified.
Evidence by outcome
Bars show how many studies we found for each outcome, not how well it works. People are added up across trials only (reviews are not added, to avoid double counting).
How we rate evidence
High certainty
Several well-run trials or reviews agree; further research is unlikely to change the picture much.
Moderate certainty
Good trials point the same way, but some doubt remains.
Low certainty
Small, short or inconsistent trials. The finding could change with better research.
Very low certainty
Very little or very weak human data. Treat as a possibility only.
Mixed findings
Trials or reviews disagree with each other.
Not enough evidence
Not enough human research to say either way.
Evidence against
Good research found no benefit, or found harm.
We take the reviewers' own risk-of-bias and GRADE statements where they exist, and otherwise judge from study size, design, consistency, directness and whether a product matches what is sold. Many publications do not make evidence high. Method note: We read PubMed abstracts of 11 papers (the eyelash trial's full text and one review's full text also), two Hawaiian cultural and botanical pages in full, and checked the plant name in GBIF and compounds in PubChem. Certainty ratings are the compiler's own reading. One safety abstract could not be matched to kukui oil and is labelled as such. No study is cited that we could not verify.
Study library: every study we checked 14
| Study | Design | People | Product, dose, length | Result |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Adams 2024 Microscopy, HPTLC, and LC-DAD-Q-ToF validation of nut-based weight-loss dietary supplements, Aleurites moluccanus (candlenut) and Bertholletia excelsa (Brazil nut). Food Addit Contam Part A · PMID 38557311 · DOI |
Product analysis n/a |
38 38 samples, including voucher and commercial candlenut and Brazil nut supplements |
n/a |
All eight commercial candlenut dietary supplement samples were adulterated with toxic nuts of yellow oleander (Cascabela thevetia). Two samples sold as Brazil nuts were also adulterated. The authors give ways to tell real from adulterated nuts. Methods, limits and fundingOutcomes: Identity and adulteration of nut-based weight-loss supplements Limitations: Whole-nut supplements, not cosmetic oil. Small number of commercial samples. Funding and conflicts: No conflicts declared. Read: abstract |
| Anheyer 2025 Herbal medicine for treating psoriasis: A systematic review. Complement Ther Med · PMID 40210174 · DOI |
Systematic review |
1115 1,115 patients in 20 randomized trials of herbal therapies for psoriasis |
Herbal therapies including kukui oil various · vs Various |
Mahonia aquifolium and indigo naturalis showed promise in reducing psoriasis severity; other herbal therapies, including kukui oil among those evaluated, gave mixed results. The authors call for more research on safety and effectiveness. No pooled effect for kukui oil in the abstract. Methods, limits and fundingOutcomes: Psoriasis severity and safety Limitations: Risk of bias varied. Abstract does not give kukui-specific figures. Funding and conflicts: One author reports an editorial board role for the journal; no other conflicts. Registration: Registered in advance (the abstract says prior registration) Read: abstract |
| Brown 2005 Effectiveness of kukui nut oil as a topical treatment for psoriasis. Int J Dermatol · PMID 16101874 · DOI |
Controlled trial |
30 30 adults aged 18 to 78 with mild, stable plaque psoriasis (under 15% of body surface); 24 finished |
Kukui nut oil put on the skin Seed oil Not given here 12 weeks · vs Mineral oil placebo |
Both groups improved. There was no significant difference between kukui oil and mineral oil among the 24 of 30 people (80%) who finished. No side effects or adverse events were reported. No significant difference from mineral oil. Methods, limits and fundingOutcomes: One targeted lesion and overall severity: clinical evaluation, PASI, Global Severity of Psoriasis Scale, photographs Limitations: Small pilot. A fifth of people dropped out. Compared with mineral oil, not with doing nothing. The authors say a larger study is needed before the oil can be dismissed. Funding and conflicts: Not stated in the abstract. Read: abstract |
| Burnett 2017 Safety Assessment of Plant-Derived Fatty Acid Oils. Int J Toxicol · PMID 29243540 · DOI |
Authoritative guidance n/a |
n/a | 244 plant-derived fatty acid oils as used in cosmetics oils |
The Cosmetic Ingredient Review Expert Panel concluded that the 244 plant-derived fatty acid oils are safe as used in cosmetics. Because many are edible and systemic toxicity is low, the review focused on effects on skin. The abstract does not list the oils, so I could not confirm from it that kukui oil is among the 244. Methods, limits and fundingOutcomes: Safety as used in cosmetics, mainly skin effects Limitations: Only the abstract could be read (full text was blocked). Kukui-specific skin data and use levels were not seen. Funding and conflicts: Cosmetic Ingredient Review is an industry-funded safety panel; PubMed lists non-US government research support. Read: abstract |
| Canoe Plants of Ancient Hawai'i (web resource) Canoe Plants of Ancient Hawai'i: Kukui n/a · Source |
Traditional knowledge source n/a |
n/a | n/a |
The page says the first Polynesian voyagers brought kukui to Hawaii. The oil of the kernels lit stone lamps and torches, and coated fishing nets. Bark, flowers and nuts were used as medicine. The sap was used on thrush sores in children's mouths, chapped lips and cold sores. Mashed nuts were combined with other plants as a purgative for constipation, and the page says the potency is so strong that internal remedies were given very carefully by experienced people. Methods, limits and fundingOutcomes: Traditional Hawaiian uses Limitations: Undated web page, no named author in the text read. Traditional use does not show that a remedy works or is safe. Read: full-text |
| Deng 2013 Plant extracts for the topical management of psoriasis: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Br J Dermatol · PMID 23909714 · DOI |
Systematic review |
Adults and children in 12 trials of single-plant extracts put on psoriasis | Single plant extracts (kukui nut oil was one of five plants, in 1 of 12 trials) various · vs Placebo |
The 12 trials covered Mahonia aquifolium (5), Aloe vera (3), indigo naturalis (2), kukui nut oil (1) and Camptotheca acuminata nut (1). The authors found limited support for Mahonia, indigo naturalis and Aloe vera and said strong conclusions cannot be made. They did not report kukui oil as supported. Kukui oil: one small trial, no support reported. Methods, limits and fundingOutcomes: Clinical efficacy, PASI, quality of life, symptom scores Limitations: Small trials, variable quality. Funding and conflicts: Research support from a non-US government source (PubMed record); details not read. Read: abstract |
| Erawati 2023 The activity of candlenut oil in the nanostructured lipid carrier system on hair growth in rats. J Public Health Afr · PMID 37492551 · DOI |
Animal research rat |
Male white rats | Candlenut (Aleurites moluccana) seed oil, 5%, in a lipid-particle carrier made with different beeswax and cacao-butter mixes Seed oil Not given here · vs Different carrier mixes compared with each other |
Mixes with beeswax and cacao butter together had better carrier traits and more hair growth than a single fat. Small particle size and low thickness went with more hair growth. Compares carrier recipes with each other; the abstract does not say how much hair grew compared with no oil. Methods, limits and fundingOutcomes: Hair growth in rats; particle size, thickness and acidity of the carrier Limitations: Rats, not people. The abstract compares carrier mixes, so it does not show oil versus no oil. Funding and conflicts: No conflicts declared. Read: abstract |
| Fu 2023 Comprehensive Characterization of Kukui Nuts as Feedstock for Energy Production in Hawaii. ACS Omega · PMID 37396206 · DOI |
Lab analysis n/a |
Kukui seeds from five sites in Hawaii | n/a |
Aged and freshly harvested seeds both held 61 to 64% oil by weight. Aged seeds had far more free fatty acids (50% versus 0.4%). Aging also changed the oil's flash point and the temperatures at which it turns solid. Methods, limits and fundingOutcomes: Oil content, free fatty acids, fuel properties Limitations: A fuel study, not a skin or safety study. It shows seeds change with age; it did not test shelf life of bottled cosmetic oil. Funding and conflicts: No competing interest declared. Read: abstract |
| GBIF 2026 GBIF Backbone Taxonomy: Aleurites moluccanus (L.) Willd. n/a · Source |
Database record n/a |
n/a | n/a |
Aleurites moluccanus (L.) Willd. is the accepted name (GBIF key 4930679), family Euphorbiaceae. The spelling Aleurites moluccana matches as a fuzzy variant of it. Checked 25 October 2026. Methods, limits and fundingOutcomes: Accepted plant name Limitations: A name record only. Read: api |
| Kato 2026 Kukui nut oil (Aleurites moluccanus seed oil) promotes hair growth by activating the Nrf2/ARE-AKR1C family-PGF2α signaling axis. Sci Rep · PMID 42218237 · DOI |
Controlled trial |
15 15 healthy Japanese women aged 27 to 48 (eyelash test); human hair follicles from scalp skin in a dish; human skin cell line |
Serum containing 0.1% kukui (Aleurites moluccanus) seed oil versus a matching placebo serum Seed oil Not given here 4 weeks (eyelash test) · vs Placebo serum on the other eyelash, same person (left-right design) |
In the lab, follicles grown in a dish from human scalp skin showed a significant hair-growth effect with the oil, with higher PGF2 alpha and cell-division markers. In the eyelash test, eyelash length rose significantly with the oil serum compared with the placebo serum after 4 weeks. Questionnaires reported perceived gains. No adverse effects were reported. The text I read shows the size of the change only in a figure. Significant increase in eyelash length versus placebo serum (Wilcoxon signed-rank test, Holm-Bonferroni correction); numbers are in a figure and were not read. Methods, limits and fundingOutcomes: Eyelash length (imaging); questionnaire on eyelash length, thickness and volume; in the lab part: hair follicle growth, PGF2 alpha, AKR1C enzymes, cell-division markers, Nrf2 signaling Limitations: 15 women, 4 weeks, eyelashes not scalp hair. The paper describes application as once daily in one place and twice daily in another. Registered after the study began. A serum with 0.1% oil is not plain oil. Three authors work for the company that makes the test products. Funding and conflicts: Three authors (K.S., T.H., F.F.) are employed by Mandom Corporation; the others declare no commercial relationships. Registration: UMIN000060798 (registered retrospectively on 2 March 2026, as the paper states) Read: full-text (Europe PMC XML) plus PubMed abstract |
| Lawani 2022 Heart Block Initiated by Candlenut Ingestion. Case Rep Cardiol · PMID 35677700 · DOI |
Case report |
1 A young adult woman with no significant past medical history |
One candlenut eaten Seed Single ingestion |
The authors write that the seed is very toxic when eaten whole and raw, and is sold as a food additive, natural laxative or weight-loss supplement. Typical symptoms are belly pain, vomiting and diarrhea; rarely, slow heartbeat and heart block. She had typical symptoms and heart block. They say most documented cases clear within about a week. Hospital care can include fluids, electrolytes, anti-sickness medicine and, if needed, drugs to support the heart. Methods, limits and fundingOutcomes: Symptoms, heart rhythm Limitations: One case plus the authors' short review. How the nut was identified is not stated in the abstract, and the mechanism is unclear. Funding and conflicts: No conflicts of interest declared. Read: abstract |
| National Tropical Botanical Garden 2025 An Eye on Plants: Kukui (National Tropical Botanical Garden) n/a · Source |
Botanical garden article n/a |
n/a | n/a |
Kukui (candlenut) is Hawaii's official state tree and a symbol of enlightenment. It is not native to Hawaii but long naturalized there. The article says oil-filled nuts are edible in small amounts and act as a laxative in larger doses. It describes uses in dyes, cloth, lomilomi massage and as a light source, and credits Hawaiian teacher Sabra Kauka for how the nuts are baked and crushed and the oil used in traditional healing and lomilomi massage. The tree belongs to the spurge family, Euphorbiaceae. Methods, limits and fundingOutcomes: Plant background and Hawaiian cultural use Limitations: A garden's educational article, not a safety or health study. Read: full-text |
| O'Brien 2020 Weight loss supplement causing acute heart block in a child. Cardiol Young · PMID 31902376 · DOI |
Case report |
1 A 16-year-old male |
One Aleurites moluccana (candlenut) seed eaten as a herbal weight-loss supplement Seed Single ingestion |
He was admitted to intensive care with vomiting, sleepiness and chest pain, and an ECG showed second-degree heart block that looked like digoxin toxicity. After 2 days of observation he improved and recovered. Methods, limits and fundingOutcomes: Symptoms, heart tracing Limitations: One case. The abstract does not say how the seed was identified; a 2024 study found commercial candlenut supplements adulterated with yellow oleander, which can affect the heart. Read: abstract |
| Poljšak 2022 Vegetable Butters and Oils as Therapeutically and Cosmetically Active Ingredients for Dermal Use: A Review of Clinical Studies. Front Pharmacol · PMID 35548366 · DOI |
Review |
27 clinical studies of 17 plant oils and butters put on skin | Plant oils and butters, including kukui oil (one psoriasis trial) various · vs Various |
The review included kukui oil through one psoriasis trial (Brown 2005), described the oil as about 1 part oleic acid to 2 parts linoleic acid in that trial (21.21% oleic, 41.27% linoleic), and said the improvement was not significant compared with mineral oil. It concluded that in inflamed skin, oils high in oleic acid and low in linoleic acid may add damage to the skin barrier, while oils high in linoleic acid may help. The abstract names no study of kukui oil on dry or healthy skin. Narrative review; no pooled effect. Methods, limits and fundingOutcomes: Skin effects of oils; link between oleic and linoleic acid content and skin barrier Limitations: A narrative review of mostly small trials. The kukui fatty acid figures come from the 2005 trial as described by the reviewers. Funding and conflicts: No commercial relationships declared. Read: abstract plus full text (Europe PMC) |
What we do not know yet
- What the evidence supports: very low certainty for eyelash length and for psoriasis (no benefit over mineral oil), insufficient for hair growth, dry skin and antioxidant claims.
- No trial of plain oil on scalp hair or dry skin, and no repeat of the eyelash trial.
- No allergy, pregnancy, breastfeeding, child, pet or interaction data for the skin oil.
- Regulators (FDA, EMA, NCCIH), LiverTox, LactMed and shelf life were not checked.
How new research is added
New studies are found by a saved PubMed search and placed in a review queue. A person reads each one before it changes any rating or safety wording.
Lab markers
What changed in blood or saliva tests during trials. A changed number is not the same as feeling or being healthier, and we give no "normal ranges".
Other 3
Eyelash length
Increased in trials
Length of eyelashes measured from standard photographs by an imaging system.
Very low certaintyResults and what it means
Why it was measured
A direct, easy measure of hair growth that can be compared between the two eyes.
Statistical vs. clinical meaning
Statistically significant in one small company-linked trial.
Safety implication
No adverse effects reported in that trial.
| Study | Result | People | Product |
|---|---|---|---|
| 10 | Significantly longer with the oil serum than the placebo serum after 4 weeks; the size is in a figure. | 15 healthy women | Serum with 0.1% kukui oil, 4 weeks |
Psoriasis severity (PASI and clinical scores)
No difference between kukui oil and mineral oil in trials
Scores of redness, thickness and scaling over the skin area affected by psoriasis.
Very low certaintyResults and what it means
Why it was measured
A standard way to judge how bad psoriasis is.
Statistical vs. clinical meaning
No benefit over mineral oil shown.
Safety implication
No side effects reported.
| Study | Result | People | Product |
|---|---|---|---|
| 3 | Both groups improved; no significant difference between kukui oil and mineral oil. | 24 of 30 adults who finished | Kukui oil versus mineral oil, 12 weeks |
PGF2 alpha and AKR1C enzymes in follicles
Increased in the dish in trials
PGF2 alpha is a signal molecule linked to hair growth; AKR1C enzymes help make it.
Not enough evidenceResults and what it means
Why it was measured
The lab team tested whether the oil works through this signal chain.
Statistical vs. clinical meaning
Lab finding; the same paper reports Nrf2 activation.
Safety implication
None assessed.
| Study | Result | People | Product |
|---|---|---|---|
| 10 | PGF2 alpha and AKR1C expression rose in treated human hair follicles and skin cells in culture. | Human follicles and cells in a dish | Kukui seed oil in culture |
Safety
What studies and official sources say about side effects, medicines and who should check first. Each point shows what kind of evidence it comes from.
Main points to know 3
- Raw candlenuts are toxic. Do not eat them as a laxative or weight-loss aid. A poison-center report says the seed is very toxic when eaten whole and raw. Typical signs are belly pain, vomiting and diarrhea. Rarely there is a slow heartbeat or heart block. A teenager and a young woman were each treated in hospital after eating one candlenut. A garden article says the nuts are edible in small amounts and act as a laxative in larger doses, and Hawaiian sources say internal remedies were given very carefully by experienced people. Case report 11 13 12 5
- Candlenut supplements may contain a different, heart-toxic seed. In a 2024 test, all 8 commercial candlenut supplement samples were adulterated with yellow oleander (Cascabela thevetia) seeds, which hold heart-active compounds. The heart block cases may therefore not be due to candlenut alone. This is about whole-nut supplements, not the cosmetic oil. Product analysis 1
- The oil for the skin is a different product from the raw nut. A panel of cosmetic safety experts judged 244 plant oils safe as used in cosmetics, but the abstract does not name kukui oil and its full text could not be read. No kukui-specific allergy or irritation data was found. Authoritative guidance 4
Side effects 4
| Effect | How often | Severity and recovery | Evidence |
|---|---|---|---|
| Belly pain, vomiting and diarrhea after eating the raw seed From the whole seed, not from the oil. | Described as typical; no rate known | moderate to serious Most documented cases clear within about a week (authors' statement) | Case report 11 13 |
| Slow heartbeat and heart block after eating a candlenut Adulteration with yellow oleander is a possible cause in some products. | Rare (authors' wording) | serious Recovered in the cases described | Case report 11 13 |
| Laxative effect from eating the nuts Traditional purge for constipation. | Described for larger amounts | mild to moderate Not stated | Traditional source 12 5 |
| Skin reactions to the oil on the skin Small trials; absence of reports is not proof of safety. Any plant oil can cause an allergy in some people. | No side effects were reported in the psoriasis pilot (30 adults, 12 weeks) or in the eyelash trial (15 women, 4 weeks) | not applicable not applicable | Controlled trial 3 10 |
Liver
No report of liver injury from kukui oil was found. LiverTox was not searched.
How often. Not known.
This is a safety connection. It is not evidence that Kukui Nut Oil supports liver health.
Medicines and supplements 2
| With | Why it matters | Importance | Evidence | What to do |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Medicines taken by mouth prescription | No interaction was described for the skin oil in any source read. | None documented. Heart-active effects were described only for eaten candlenuts and possibly yellow oleander contamination. | Insufficient Not enough evidence | Tell your pharmacist you use it; do not take candlenuts alongside heart medicines. |
| Skin products and prescribed skin treatments other | In the psoriasis pilot the oil was compared with mineral oil; it was not tested together with psoriasis medicines. | Insufficient Not enough evidence 3 | Ask your doctor before using it on skin that is being treated. |
Who should check first 4
| Situation | Advice | Evidence |
|---|---|---|
| Eating raw or roasted candlenuts or candlenut supplements | Do not. The raw seed is toxic and supplements may be adulterated. If someone has eaten candlenut and feels unwell, call a poison center or emergency number. | Case report 11 13 1 |
| Pregnancy, breastfeeding, babies and children | No source read covers pregnancy, breastfeeding, babies or children for the oil. Ask a doctor or pharmacist first. A 16-year-old was hospitalized after eating a candlenut. | Case report 13 |
| Allergy to tree nuts or seeds, or earlier skin reactions to plant oils | No kukui-specific nut allergy data was found. Test a small area of skin first and stop if it reacts, or ask an allergist. | Insufficient |
| Skin near the eyes | The only eyelash study used a serum made for that purpose with 0.1% oil and reported no adverse effects. Plain oil near the eyes was not studied. | Controlled trial 10 |
Overdose, product quality and regulators
Summary. The raw seed is toxic when eaten (authors of a poison-center report). The cosmetic oil is a separate product; no poisoning from skin use was described in the sources read.
Animal. Not reviewed.
Human doses studied. Skin use for 4 weeks (eyelash serum, 0.1% oil) and 12 weeks (psoriasis pilot) with no side effects reported.
High dose or long term signals. Heart block after eating a single candlenut in two case reports.
Overdose response. Hospital care described: fluids, electrolytes, anti-sickness medicine, and heart support if needed.
Genotoxicity. Not read.
Toxic or hazardous parts. The raw seed (kernel) is described as toxic. Other parts were not assessed in the sources read.
The main finding is adulteration of whole-nut supplements. Oil quality, rancidity and pesticide levels were not studied.
Yellow oleander adulteration. All 8 commercial candlenut supplement samples tested were adulterated with yellow oleander seeds (38 samples in total, including voucher samples). 1
Rancid oil (storage). Kukui oil is rich in polyunsaturated fats, which spoil more easily. Seeds that were aged had 50% free fatty acids versus 0.4% in fresh seeds. Shelf life of bottled oil was not tested, so smell and age are the practical clues. 8 14
| Body | Action | Date |
|---|
When to get medical help
- After eating a candlenut or candlenut supplement: repeated vomiting, severe belly pain, a very slow or irregular heartbeat, chest pain, fainting or unusual sleepiness. Call emergency services or a poison center.
- After skin use: swelling of the lips, tongue or face, wheezing or trouble breathing.
Stop using the product and contact a clinician or emergency service. In the US, Poison Control is 1-800-222-1222.
General information only, not medical advice. Ask a clinician or pharmacist before use, especially with medicines, in pregnancy or with a health condition. See the Natural Remedy Safety guide.
Frequently asked questions
What is kukui nut oil?
Is kukui oil the same as candlenut oil?
Yes. Kukui is the Hawaiian name and candlenut is the common name elsewhere for the same tree and its oil.
Are raw candlenuts safe to eat?
Are candlenut supplements safe?
A 2024 test found all 8 commercial candlenut supplement samples adulterated with yellow oleander seeds, which are toxic to the heart. These supplements are sold as laxatives or weight-loss aids and are best avoided.
Does kukui oil help hair grow?
Does it make eyelashes longer?
One 4-week trial in 15 women found longer lashes with a serum holding 0.1% kukui oil than with a placebo serum. It was small and company-linked, and it has not been repeated.
Does it help psoriasis?
Can I be allergic to it?
Does it go rancid?
How was kukui used in Hawaii?
Is it safe in pregnancy, for babies or for pets?
No source read covers this for the oil. Ask a doctor, pharmacist or vet.
Explore by health goal
Editorial transparency
- Written by
- AlternativeMed editorial team. Research compiled with AI assistance, then checked against PubMed records.
- Medical review
- None. This page has not been reviewed by a physician or pharmacist.
- First published
- 2026-10-25
- Last substantive update
- 2026-10-25
- How we research
- We read PubMed abstracts of 11 papers (the eyelash trial's full text and one review's full text also), two Hawaiian cultural and botanical pages in full, and checked the plant name in GBIF and compounds in PubChem. Certainty ratings are the compiler's own reading. One safety abstract could not be matched to kukui oil and is labelled as such. No study is cited that we could not verify.
- How we rate evidence
- See "How we rate evidence" in the Evidence tab.
- Independence
- No product is promoted on this page. No affiliate links are shown.
Sources 14
Each source was opened and checked. Where we read only the abstract, it says so. The small numbers in the text point here.
- Adams SJ, Avula B, Katragunta K et al. Microscopy, HPTLC, and LC-DAD-Q-ToF validation of nut-based weight-loss dietary supplements, Aleurites moluccanus (candlenut) and Bertholletia excelsa (Brazil nut).. Food Addit Contam Part A. 2024. PMID 38557311. DOI 10.1080/19440049.2024.2334309. (abstract)
- Anheyer M, Cramer H, Ostermann T et al. Herbal medicine for treating psoriasis: A systematic review.. Complement Ther Med. 2025. PMID 40210174. DOI 10.1016/j.ctim.2025.103173. (abstract)
- Brown AC, Koett J, Johnson DW et al. Effectiveness of kukui nut oil as a topical treatment for psoriasis.. Int J Dermatol. 2005. PMID 16101874. DOI 10.1111/j.1365-4632.2005.02634.x. (abstract)
- Burnett CL, Fiume MM, Bergfeld WF et al. Safety Assessment of Plant-Derived Fatty Acid Oils.. Int J Toxicol. 2017. PMID 29243540. DOI 10.1177/1091581817740569. (abstract)
- Canoe Plants of Ancient Hawai'i (web resource). Canoe Plants of Ancient Hawai'i: Kukui. n/a. . (full-text)
- Deng S, May BH, Zhang AL et al. Plant extracts for the topical management of psoriasis: a systematic review and meta-analysis.. Br J Dermatol. 2013. PMID 23909714. DOI 10.1111/bjd.12557. (abstract)
- Erawati TM, Rosita N, Rachmania I. The activity of candlenut oil in the nanostructured lipid carrier system on hair growth in rats.. J Public Health Afr. 2023. PMID 37492551. DOI 10.4081/jphia.2023.2519. (abstract)
- Fu J, Weber S, Turn SQ. Comprehensive Characterization of Kukui Nuts as Feedstock for Energy Production in Hawaii.. ACS Omega. 2023. PMID 37396206. DOI 10.1021/acsomega.3c00860. (abstract)
- GBIF. GBIF Backbone Taxonomy: Aleurites moluccanus (L.) Willd.. n/a. 2026. (api)
- Kato H, Badjuri NR, Febrian J et al. Kukui nut oil (Aleurites moluccanus seed oil) promotes hair growth by activating the Nrf2/ARE-AKR1C family-PGF2α signaling axis.. Sci Rep. 2026. PMID 42218237. DOI 10.1038/s41598-026-54838-w. (full-text (Europe PMC XML) plus PubMed abstract)
- Lawani O, Winter M. Heart Block Initiated by Candlenut Ingestion.. Case Rep Cardiol. 2022. PMID 35677700. DOI 10.1155/2022/3679968. (abstract)
- National Tropical Botanical Garden. An Eye on Plants: Kukui (National Tropical Botanical Garden). n/a. 2025. (full-text)
- O'Brien DR, Szymczuk V, Albaro CA. Weight loss supplement causing acute heart block in a child.. Cardiol Young. 2020. PMID 31902376. DOI 10.1017/S104795111900283X. (abstract)
- Poljšak N, Kočevar Glavač N. Vegetable Butters and Oils as Therapeutically and Cosmetically Active Ingredients for Dermal Use: A Review of Clinical Studies.. Front Pharmacol. 2022. PMID 35548366. DOI 10.3389/fphar.2022.868461. (abstract plus full text (Europe PMC))
Where to buy
Check the label first. Whatever you buy, look for these:
- 100% pure with no added fragrance or fillers
- Cold-pressed or unrefined if you want the most natural form
- For skin use, do a small patch test first
- Cosmetic or food grade, matched to how you will use it
Talk to a pharmacist or doctor before you start any supplement, especially if you take medicines. See the Safety tab for interactions.
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