Vitamins & Supplements · Nootropic
Bacopa monnieri
Bacopa monnieri · also called Brahmi, water hyssop, herb of grace
Bacopa is a creeping plant used in Ayurvedic medicine for memory and calm. Supplements are usually leaf extracts. Reviews of trials found small gains on some memory and reaction tests, but the evidence is low-certainty and a 2025 trial found no gain. Stomach upset is common, and it may interact with some medicines, so ask a doctor or pharmacist first.
General information, not medical advice. Last substantive update · Not medically reviewed. A named clinician has not signed off on this page. How this page is made
About Bacopa monnieri
Bacopa monnieri (brahmi) is an Ayurvedic herb studied for memory and thinking. Trials give mixed, low-certainty results, and the commonest side effects are digestive.
What bacopa is
Bacopa monnieri, also called brahmi or water hyssop, is a plant used in Ayurvedic medicine for centuries for memory, anxiety, insomnia and epilepsy. The leaf is made into extracts (LiverTox; StatPearls).
Its saponins, called bacosides, are believed to be behind most of its actions, according to StatPearls. That is a belief from lab work, not a proven explanation of what happens in people.
What the research shows
A 2012 review of 6 twelve-week trials found improved free-recall memory scores on 9 of 17 tests. A 2014 meta-analysis of 9 trials found slightly faster Trail B and reaction times. A 2026 indirect comparison with ginkgo reported better working memory, but with an unusually large effect and no direct trials.
Against that, a 2025 trial of 101 adults aged 40 to 70 with memory complaints found no difference from placebo on verbal learning, attention or working memory. Reviewers rate the overall certainty low. For Alzheimer's disease, schizophrenia and sleep, the evidence is very weak or insufficient.
Product quality
Extracts differ between products. A 2016 lab study of 12 Ayurvedic bacopa formulations found metals below permitted limits but some pesticide residues in some samples. A 2021 review notes it is not always known what is in a supplement.
Extract versus plant
Trial results are for standardised extracts, and the 2012 review found three different extracts across six trials. Bacopa is not a food nutrient, and no trial compared extracts with dried leaf powder. This page gives no amounts to take; ask a doctor or pharmacist about your own situation.
At a glance
Traditional uses history, not proof
- Memory and learning in Ayurvedic medicine
- Anxiety, insomnia and epilepsy in traditional use
Studied for research
- Memory free recall in adults, low certainty
- Attention and reaction speed, low certainty
- Working memory compared with ginkgo, very low certainty
- Stress and fatigue, very low certainty
- Mild cognitive impairment, very low certainty
- Alzheimer's disease dementia, very low certainty
- Children's attention and behaviour, low certainty
- Schizophrenia, insufficient evidence
Main compounds
- Bacosides (triterpenoid saponins)
- Bacopasaponin C
- Alkaloids and cucurbitacins (named by a 2025 review)
Common forms
- Standardised leaf or whole-plant extracts (used in trials)
- Dried leaf powder
- Capsules and tablets, sometimes with other ingredients
Research links: 2012 systematic review: Bacopa and cognition (6 trials) · 2014 meta-analysis: Bacopa extract and cognition (9 trials) · 2026 network meta-analysis: Bacopa versus ginkgo · 2025 randomised trial in adults with memory complaints · 2025 review: safety, interactions and contraindications · Research Library · Genes & Biomarkers Library
What it is and its history
- Accepted scientific name
- Bacopa monnieri (L.) Pennell
- Naming authority
- (L.) Pennell (GBIF accepted name). Some studies write Bacopa monnieri Wettst.; Bacopa monniera is another spelling used in the literature.
- Synonyms
- Bacopa monniera
- Common names
- Bacopa (English); Brahmi (Hindi / English trade name); Water hyssop (English); Herb of grace (English); Indian pennywort (English); Coastal water hyssop (English)
- Family or group
- Plantaginaceae (GBIF)
- Classification
- Plantae > Tracheophyta > Magnoliopsida > Lamiales > Plantaginaceae > Bacopa > Bacopa monnieri
- Native range
- The 2023 StatPearls and LiverTox texts describe it as a plant of the Indian subcontinent; no range data were read from GBIF.
- Habitat
- Not read from a source.
- What it looks like
- Roots: Not read.; Stems: Not read.; Leaves: The leaves are the part made into extracts (LiverTox).; Flowers: Not read.; Fruit: Not read.
- Cultivation
- Not read.
- Harvest and processing
- Not read.
- Look-alikes and adulterants
- Name: Other plants sold as 'brahmi'; Note: A shared local name could cause confusion between products; this was not checked in a source read, so no specific plant is named.
- Sustainability and conservation
- Not assessed.
Traditional use and history history, not clinical proof
| Tradition or era | Documented use | Source |
|---|---|---|
| Ayurvedic medicine | Used for centuries for memory and thinking, and for anxiety, insomnia and epilepsy (LiverTox; StatPearls). | p38718157; p36943953 |
Traditional use shows how it was used. It does not show that it works or is safe today.
What is inside, and how it may work
What it contains and how those compounds act in cells and animals. Laboratory and animal mechanisms are not proven effects in people.
Main compounds
| Compound | Family | Where it is concentrated | Activity studied | Level of evidence |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Bacosides (triterpenoid saponins) | triterpenoid saponins | Leaf extracts Not read from a source; extract strength varies between products. | StatPearls says triterpenoid saponins are believed to be responsible for most of the herb's pharmacological actions. This is a belief, not a proof. 15 | Review |
| Bacopasaponin C | saponin | Ethanol extracts 0.3-0.6% of ethanolic extracts (as stated by a 2025 review). | The review lists it among bacopa saponins. It also lists alkaloids and cucurbitacins as constituents. 7 | Review |
Mechanisms, receptors and pathways
| Target or pathway | Gene or receptor | What was found | Level |
|---|---|---|---|
| Acetylcholinesterase inhibition and acetylcholine levels | Acetylcholinesterase | A 2025 review says bacopa acts as an acetylcholinesterase inhibitor, which could raise acetylcholine. In the 2025 human trial, blood acetylcholinesterase activity did not differ from placebo. 7 11 | Lab / animal (human blood marker unchanged) |
| Antioxidant and nerve-protection effects | Not specified | The 2025 review describes lab and animal results on amyloid, oxidative stress and nerve-cell protection. These are not shown to explain any trial effect in people. 7 | Lab / animal |
| Liver enzymes (CYP2C9, 2C19, 1A2, 2D6, 3A4) | CYP isoenzymes | The review says bacopa inhibits these enzymes in lab studies, which is the basis for the medicine-interaction cautions. 7 | Lab |
Absorption, metabolism and elimination
- Absorption
- Not described in the sources read. The 2025 review's title mentions the search for improved bioavailability.
- Distribution
- Not read.
- Metabolism
- Not read.
- Elimination
- Not read.
- Bioavailability
- The 2025 review's title refers to the search for improved bioavailability, but its abstract gives no figures.
Isolated compounds versus whole extracts
Trials used standardised extracts (whole-plant or leaf), not food. The 2012 review found three different extracts across six trials. Dried leaf powder and capsules also exist, and their content is less predictable; no trial compared them.
Nutritional composition
Bacopa is a plant extract, not a food or a nutrient. No food-composition values were read, and none are claimed.
7 low certainty5 very low certainty1 not enough evidence
What was looked at
The 13 benefits and uses checked for Bacopa monnieri, each with how strong the evidence is. Tap one to open it.
- Memory (free recall) in adults without dementiaLow certainty
- Speed of attention and reaction timeLow certainty
- Working and short-term memory (compared with ginkgo)Very low certainty
- Memory and Stroop test in healthy older adultsLow certainty
- Adults aged 40-70 with memory and attention complaints (no gain in 2025 trial)Low certainty
- Overall certainty for healthy and older adultsLow certainty
- Stress and fatigueVery low certainty
- Anxiety and depression scores in older adultsVery low certainty
- Mild cognitive impairmentVery low certainty
- Alzheimer's disease dementiaVery low certainty
- Children and teenagers (attention and behaviour)Low certainty
- Sleep qualityLow certainty
- SchizophreniaNot enough evidence
Lab markers tracked in the studies
Trail B time (seconds or ms)Choice reaction time (ms)Delayed word recall (AVLT)Blood BDNF, MDA and acetylcholinesterase activityDepression score (CESD-10)State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (combined)Montreal Cognitive Assessment (MoCA) overall scorePittsburgh Sleep Quality Index
What is Bacopa monnieri good for?
The main studied uses and how strong the human evidence is for each. Most trials were short (about 12 weeks), small and used standardised extracts, not food.
Benefits, one by one
Each card is a research question, not a promise. Tap a goal to filter. Open a card to see the studies, doses and limits.
Memory (free recall) in adults without dementia
Low certaintyA 2012 review of 6 trials, each lasting 12 weeks, found bacopa extracts improved 9 of 17 memory free-recall tests. There was little sign of benefit in other thinking skills, and the authors called the research 'in its infancy'.
2 studiesStandardised leaf or whole-plant extracts were used in the trials. St…
Studies, doses and limits
What the trials found
The review pooled 6 randomised trials in adults without dementia, all 12 weeks long, using three different extracts. Every trial looked at memory; other thinking areas were studied much less. Test measures were inconsistent across trials.
Results
Some free-recall scores improved, but not consistently. A later 2025 trial in adults with memory complaints did not repeat the gain (see below).
Effect sizes as reported
9 of 17 memory free-recall tests improved across the 6 trials.
Why this rating
Few small trials, three different extracts, mixed tests and a later null trial.
Form and dose studied
Standardised leaf or whole-plant extracts were used in the trials. Studied amounts are in the studies table only; this is not a recommendation.
Who was studied
Adults without dementia or major cognitive impairment.
Limits
Short trials (12 weeks); better test scores are not the same as better everyday memory.
Why researchers looked
Bacopa is a traditional Ayurvedic memory herb, so trials ask whether it helps adults remember words and lists.
Traditional use
Bacopa (brahmi) has been used in Ayurvedic medicine for centuries. Traditional use is a different thing from showing, in trials, that an extract works.
Proposed mechanism Not established
Not established in people. Lab and animal work suggests bacopa compounds (bacosides) act on brain signalling, but this has not been shown to explain trial results.
A proposed mechanism does not show that the effect happens in people.
Digestive side effects were the most common complaint (see the Safety tab).
Speed of attention and reaction time
Low certaintyA 2014 meta-analysis of 9 placebo-controlled trials (518 people) found a shorter Trail B time and a shorter choice reaction time with bacopa extracts taken for 12 weeks or more. The authors said a large head-to-head trial is still needed.
2 studiesStandardised leaf or whole-plant extracts were used in the trials. St…
Studies, doses and limits
What the trials found
The pooled test results came from 437 eligible people. Differences were measured in milliseconds, which makes their practical meaning unclear. A 2026 analysis found no clear difference in sustained attention, selective attention or processing speed.
Results
Small time gains on lab tests; not shown to matter in daily life.
Effect sizes as reported
Trail B about 17.9 ms shorter; choice reaction time about 10.6 ms shorter (as reported).
Why this rating
Pooled trials were judged low risk of bias, but the gains are tiny and a newer analysis found no clear attention effect.
Form and dose studied
Standardised leaf or whole-plant extracts were used in the trials. Studied amounts are in the studies table only; this is not a recommendation.
Who was studied
Adults taking standardised extracts for 12 weeks or more, without other medicines.
Limits
Measures are narrow lab tests; head-to-head trial against an existing medicine still missing.
Why researchers looked
Trail B and reaction-time tests measure how fast the brain switches and responds, so they are common in nootropic trials.
Traditional use
Bacopa (brahmi) has been used in Ayurvedic medicine for centuries. Traditional use is a different thing from showing, in trials, that an extract works.
Proposed mechanism Not established
Not established in people. Lab and animal work suggests bacopa compounds (bacosides) act on brain signalling, but this has not been shown to explain trial results.
A proposed mechanism does not show that the effect happens in people.
See the Safety tab for digestive effects.
Working and short-term memory (compared with ginkgo)
Very low certaintyA 2026 network meta-analysis of 29 trials in healthy adults (2,107 people) reported better working and short-term memory with the higher-amount bacopa group than with placebo or ginkgo. No clear gain was seen in sustained attention, selective attention or processing speed.
1 studiesStandardised leaf or whole-plant extracts were used in the trials. St…
Studies, doses and limits
What the trials found
The analysis compared the herbs indirectly because no trial pitted them against each other. The working-memory effect (SMD about 2) is unusually large and should be treated with caution until trials confirm it.
Results
Promising but weak evidence: indirect comparison, very large effect, mixed attention results.
Effect sizes as reported
Working memory, higher-amount bacopa versus placebo: SMD 2.03 (95% CI 1.28 to 2.78).
Why this rating
Indirect comparisons and an unusually large effect; abstract-only read.
Form and dose studied
Standardised leaf or whole-plant extracts were used in the trials. Studied amounts are in the studies table only; this is not a recommendation.
Who was studied
Healthy adults in 29 trials.
Limits
No direct bacopa-versus-ginkgo trials.
Why researchers looked
Bacopa and ginkgo are the two best-known memory herbs, but nobody had tested them head to head.
Traditional use
Bacopa (brahmi) has been used in Ayurvedic medicine for centuries. Traditional use is a different thing from showing, in trials, that an extract works.
Proposed mechanism Not established
Not established in people. Lab and animal work suggests bacopa compounds (bacosides) act on brain signalling, but this has not been shown to explain trial results.
A proposed mechanism does not show that the effect happens in people.
See the Safety tab.
Memory and Stroop test in healthy older adults
Low certaintyIn a 2008 trial of 54 healthy people aged 65 or older, 12 weeks of a standardised bacopa extract improved delayed word recall and a Stroop task compared with placebo. Divided attention, a digit working-memory test, mood and blood pressure did not change.
1 studiesStandardised leaf or whole-plant extracts were used in the trials. St…
Studies, doses and limits
What the trials found
54 people were randomised and 48 finished (24 per group). The primary outcome was delayed word recall. The trial had NIH extramural support. Depression and anxiety scores also fell in the bacopa group (listed under other uses).
Results
Better delayed recall and Stroop results than placebo; no effect on several other tests.
Effect sizes as reported
Statistical details were not in the abstract.
Why this rating
A single small trial; some outcomes positive, some null.
Form and dose studied
Standardised leaf or whole-plant extracts were used in the trials. Studied amounts are in the studies table only; this is not a recommendation.
Who was studied
Healthy adults 65 or older (mean 73.5) without dementia.
Limits
Small, one site, 12 weeks.
Why researchers looked
Memory slips are common with age, so this trial asked whether bacopa helps healthy older adults.
Traditional use
Bacopa (brahmi) has been used in Ayurvedic medicine for centuries. Traditional use is a different thing from showing, in trials, that an extract works.
Proposed mechanism Not established
Not established in people. Lab and animal work suggests bacopa compounds (bacosides) act on brain signalling, but this has not been shown to explain trial results.
A proposed mechanism does not show that the effect happens in people.
Few side effects, mostly stomach upset (9 bacopa, 10 placebo).
Adults aged 40-70 with memory and attention complaints (no gain in 2025 trial)
Low certaintyA 2025 trial of 101 adults with self-reported memory and attention problems found no difference from placebo after 12 weeks in verbal learning, attention or working memory. The authors say bacopa did not give greater cognitive improvement.
1 studiesStandardised leaf or whole-plant extracts were used in the trials. St…
Studies, doses and limits
What the trials found
87 of 101 finished. The primary tests (verbal learning, attention, working memory) showed no between-group differences. Blood markers (BDNF, MDA, acetylcholinesterase activity) did not differ either, so the proposed mechanisms were not seen in blood.
Results
No cognitive benefit in this trial. Evidence against an effect in this group, from one trial.
Effect sizes as reported
Verbal learning p = 0.391; attention p = 0.713; working memory p = 0.610.
Why this rating
One moderately sized trial with a branded extract; the authors' company receives funding from supplement companies.
Form and dose studied
Standardised leaf or whole-plant extracts were used in the trials. Studied amounts are in the studies table only; this is not a recommendation.
Who was studied
Adults aged 40-70 with self-reported memory and attention problems.
Limits
Single trial, one extract, 12 weeks.
Why researchers looked
Many people take bacopa because they feel their memory or focus has slipped.
Traditional use
Bacopa (brahmi) has been used in Ayurvedic medicine for centuries. Traditional use is a different thing from showing, in trials, that an extract works.
Proposed mechanism Not established
Not established in people. Lab and animal work suggests bacopa compounds (bacosides) act on brain signalling, but this has not been shown to explain trial results.
A proposed mechanism does not show that the effect happens in people.
More self-reported adverse reactions with bacopa, mainly digestive complaints and headaches.
Overall certainty for healthy and older adults
Low certaintyReviews that look at the whole body of trials are cautious. A 2021 review of nine ingredients marketed for thinking, including bacopa, rated the certainty low. A 2023 review of herbal medicines in older adults, which included 6 bacopa trials, also found low-quality evidence.
2 studiesStandardised leaf or whole-plant extracts were used in the trials. St…
Studies, doses and limits
What the trials found
The 2021 review says studies were inconsistent and imprecise, many were flawed, and it is not always known what is in a supplement. In the 2023 review, 14 of 21 trials reported some improvement but 14 of 21 had a high risk of bias and only one had a low risk.
Results
Mixed and low-certainty: a possible small effect on some memory tests, but weak evidence and no strong proof.
Effect sizes as reported
No pooled numbers.
Why this rating
The reviewers themselves rate the evidence low.
Form and dose studied
Standardised leaf or whole-plant extracts were used in the trials. Studied amounts are in the studies table only; this is not a recommendation.
Who was studied
Healthy adults and older adults with or without subjective cognitive impairment.
Limits
Reviews cover many products at once.
Why researchers looked
People want to know whether the headline results hold up when the quality of all trials is weighed.
Traditional use
Bacopa (brahmi) has been used in Ayurvedic medicine for centuries. Traditional use is a different thing from showing, in trials, that an extract works.
Proposed mechanism Not established
Not established in people. Lab and animal work suggests bacopa compounds (bacosides) act on brain signalling, but this has not been shown to explain trial results.
A proposed mechanism does not show that the effect happens in people.
See the Safety tab.
Stress and fatigue
Very low certaintyIn a 2025 trial of 101 adults, the bacopa group reported greater drops in stress reactivity (p = 0.03) and in fatigue and stress after a demanding computer task than the placebo group. These were secondary outcomes and the authors say they need testing again.
1 studiesStandardised leaf or whole-plant extracts were used in the trials. St…
Studies, doses and limits
What the trials found
The primary thinking tests showed no benefit, so this is a secondary finding. The authors' company receives funding from supplement companies.
Results
Possible small effect on self-reported stress and fatigue; not confirmed.
Effect sizes as reported
Stress reactivity p = 0.03.
Why this rating
Secondary outcome of a single trial.
Form and dose studied
Standardised leaf or whole-plant extracts were used in the trials. Studied amounts are in the studies table only; this is not a recommendation.
Who was studied
Adults aged 40-70 with memory and attention complaints.
Limits
Self-reported questionnaires; one trial; some blood markers unchanged.
Why researchers looked
Bacopa is traditionally called a calming herb.
Traditional use
Bacopa (brahmi) has been used in Ayurvedic medicine for centuries. Traditional use is a different thing from showing, in trials, that an extract works.
Proposed mechanism Not established
Not established in people. Lab and animal work suggests bacopa compounds (bacosides) act on brain signalling, but this has not been shown to explain trial results.
A proposed mechanism does not show that the effect happens in people.
More digestive complaints and headaches with bacopa.
Anxiety and depression scores in older adults
Very low certaintyIn the 2008 trial of 54 healthy older adults, depression scores (CESD-10), combined anxiety scores and heart rate fell in the bacopa group and rose in the placebo group. Mood scores and blood pressure did not change. StatPearls says bacopa is used traditionally for anxiety, but trial support was not otherwise confirmed here.
2 studiesStandardised leaf or whole-plant extracts were used in the trials. St…
Studies, doses and limits
What the trials found
These were secondary measures in people who were not diagnosed with a mood disorder. The StatPearls entry describes anxiety use, but the abstract does not list trials in anxiety disorders.
Results
Small changes in questionnaire scores in healthy older adults; not a treatment for anxiety or depression.
Effect sizes as reported
No effect sizes in the abstract.
Why this rating
Secondary measures from a small trial.
Form and dose studied
Standardised leaf or whole-plant extracts were used in the trials. Studied amounts are in the studies table only; this is not a recommendation.
Who was studied
Healthy adults 65 and older.
Limits
No trial in people with anxiety or depression disorders was read.
Why researchers looked
Ayurvedic medicine uses bacopa for anxiety, so trials sometimes record anxiety and mood.
Traditional use
Bacopa (brahmi) has been used in Ayurvedic medicine for centuries. Traditional use is a different thing from showing, in trials, that an extract works.
Proposed mechanism Not established
Not established in people. Lab and animal work suggests bacopa compounds (bacosides) act on brain signalling, but this has not been shown to explain trial results.
A proposed mechanism does not show that the effect happens in people.
Stomach upset was the main side effect.
Mild cognitive impairment
Very low certaintyA small 2024 trial of 62 people with mild cognitive impairment gave a bacopa extract or a starch pill for 2 months. The abstract reports no overall difference at first, a significant overall difference at the final check (p = 0.029), and gains in attention and verbal fluency. Its wording about time points is not fully consistent.
1 studiesStandardised leaf or whole-plant extracts were used in the trials. St…
Studies, doses and limits
What the trials found
Triple-blinded and randomised, but small and short. The same abstract says the overall score showed no difference at one month yet differed at the end.
Results
Possible small gain on some cognitive scores; uncertain.
Effect sizes as reported
Overall MoCA at end: p = 0.029; attention p = 0.004; verbal fluency p = 0.003.
Why this rating
One small trial with an internally inconsistent abstract.
Form and dose studied
Standardised leaf or whole-plant extracts were used in the trials. Studied amounts are in the studies table only; this is not a recommendation.
Who was studied
People with mild cognitive impairment.
Limits
Small, 2 months, funding not stated.
Why researchers looked
Mild cognitive impairment can come before dementia, so people ask whether bacopa helps.
Traditional use
Bacopa (brahmi) has been used in Ayurvedic medicine for centuries. Traditional use is a different thing from showing, in trials, that an extract works.
Proposed mechanism Not established
Not established in people. Lab and animal work suggests bacopa compounds (bacosides) act on brain signalling, but this has not been shown to explain trial results.
A proposed mechanism does not show that the effect happens in people.
No safety figures in the abstract.
Alzheimer's disease dementia
Very low certaintyA 2022 review found 5 trials, all at high risk of bias, with 3 using bacopa mixed with other herbs. The reviewers rated the evidence very low certainty and found no difference between bacopa and placebo or donepezil. No major safety issues were reported.
1 studiesStandardised leaf or whole-plant extracts were used in the trials. St…
Studies, doses and limits
What the trials found
Doses and treatment lengths varied widely and the sample sizes were small. Bacopa should not replace prescribed treatment.
Results
No proven benefit in people with Alzheimer's; evidence too weak to judge.
Effect sizes as reported
No difference versus placebo or donepezil (very low certainty).
Why this rating
High risk of bias in every trial and mixed products.
Form and dose studied
Standardised leaf or whole-plant extracts were used in the trials. Studied amounts are in the studies table only; this is not a recommendation.
Who was studied
People with dementia or mild cognitive impairment due to Alzheimer disease.
Limits
Few small trials; no good trials in dementia.
Why researchers looked
Bacopa is studied in the lab for Alzheimer's biology, so people ask about patients.
Traditional use
Bacopa (brahmi) has been used in Ayurvedic medicine for centuries. Traditional use is a different thing from showing, in trials, that an extract works.
Proposed mechanism Lab animal
Lab and animal work suggests effects on amyloid and acetylcholine; this has not been shown to help patients.
A proposed mechanism does not show that the effect happens in people.
No major safety issues reported in the trials, but trials were small.
Children and teenagers (attention and behaviour)
Low certaintyA 2016 review of 5 studies in children and teenagers reported small-to-medium improvements in language behaviour, some memory areas, hyperactivity and attention-deficit measures (mean effect size 0.42). Only 2.3% of participants reported mild side effects. The authors call for replicated trials.
1 studiesStandardised leaf or whole-plant extracts were used in the trials. St…
Studies, doses and limits
What the trials found
Study designs varied and the abstract does not grade quality. This is not a recommendation to give bacopa to children.
Results
Preliminary positive signals from few studies; not enough to rely on.
Effect sizes as reported
Mean effect size d = 0.42.
Why this rating
Five small studies, mixed designs.
Form and dose studied
Standardised leaf or whole-plant extracts were used in the trials. Studied amounts are in the studies table only; this is not a recommendation.
Who was studied
Children and adolescents.
Limits
Few studies; replication needed.
Why researchers looked
Parents ask about herbs for attention in children; bacopa has been tried in small studies.
Traditional use
Bacopa (brahmi) has been used in Ayurvedic medicine for centuries. Traditional use is a different thing from showing, in trials, that an extract works.
Proposed mechanism Not established
Not established in people. Lab and animal work suggests bacopa compounds (bacosides) act on brain signalling, but this has not been shown to explain trial results.
A proposed mechanism does not show that the effect happens in people.
Ask a paediatrician before giving any herbal product to a child.
Sleep quality
Low certaintyIn the 2024 mild cognitive impairment trial, bacopa had no effect on sleep quality scores. Traditional use for insomnia is described by StatPearls, but we found no trial support.
2 studiesStandardised leaf or whole-plant extracts were used in the trials. St…
Studies, doses and limits
What the trials found
Sleep was measured with the Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index in 62 people with mild cognitive impairment.
Results
No benefit found in one small trial.
Effect sizes as reported
No significant difference (P > 0.05).
Why this rating
One small trial; traditional use unverified.
Form and dose studied
Standardised leaf or whole-plant extracts were used in the trials. Studied amounts are in the studies table only; this is not a recommendation.
Who was studied
People with mild cognitive impairment.
Limits
No trial in people with insomnia was read.
Why researchers looked
Ayurveda lists insomnia among bacopa's traditional uses.
Traditional use
Bacopa (brahmi) has been used in Ayurvedic medicine for centuries. Traditional use is a different thing from showing, in trials, that an extract works.
Proposed mechanism Not established
Not established in people. Lab and animal work suggests bacopa compounds (bacosides) act on brain signalling, but this has not been shown to explain trial results.
A proposed mechanism does not show that the effect happens in people.
None noted.
Schizophrenia
Not enough evidenceA 2025 systematic review of 9 studies says bacopa could reverse some symptoms in schizophrenia and lists lab-type effects on glutamate, GABA and antioxidants. The abstract does not say how many studies were in people, so this cannot be taken as proof.
1 studiesStandardised leaf or whole-plant extracts were used in the trials. St…
Studies, doses and limits
What the trials found
No numbers are given in the abstract. People with schizophrenia should not stop prescribed medicines.
Results
Insufficient evidence in people.
Why this rating
Unclear how many studies were in humans.
Form and dose studied
Standardised leaf or whole-plant extracts were used in the trials. Studied amounts are in the studies table only; this is not a recommendation.
Limits
No quality grading in the abstract.
Why researchers looked
Researchers have looked at bacopa's effects on brain chemistry linked to schizophrenia.
Traditional use
Bacopa (brahmi) has been used in Ayurvedic medicine for centuries. Traditional use is a different thing from showing, in trials, that an extract works.
Proposed mechanism Lab animal
Described as effects on glutamate and GABA signalling, antioxidant markers and acetylcholinesterase; mostly lab and animal-type findings.
A proposed mechanism does not show that the effect happens in people.
Ask a psychiatrist or pharmacist about any herb alongside antipsychotics.
Connections to the rest of health
How Bacopa monnieri connects to the rest of our health knowledge graph. Every link says what kind of connection it is. A safety link (for example to the liver) is a warning, not a benefit. A study that merely mentions a topic never creates a benefit link.
Explore every connection: goals, body systems, organs, symptoms, genes
A. Wellness goals
| Connected to | Kind of connection | Evidence status | Context | Studies |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Memory support | Preliminary | Some memory tests improved in trials; certainty is low. Preparation or compound: Standardised extracts |
13 14 | |
| Memory Support | Low certainty | Memory (free recall) in adults without dementia: A 2012 review of 6 trials, each lasting 12 weeks, found bacopa extracts improved 9 of 17 memory free-recall tests. There was little sign of benefit in other thinking skills, and the authors called the research 'in its infancy'. Working and short-term memory (compared with ginkgo): A 2026 network meta-analysis of 29 trials in healthy adults (2,107 people) reported better working and short-term memory with the higher-amount bacopa group than with placebo or ginkgo. No clear gain was seen in sustained attention, selective attention or processing speed. | 13 11 14 3 6 | |
| Cognitive Performance | Low certainty | Speed of attention and reaction time: A 2014 meta-analysis of 9 placebo-controlled trials (518 people) found a shorter Trail B time and a shorter choice reaction time with bacopa extracts taken for 12 weeks or more. The authors said a large head-to-head trial is still needed. Adults aged 40-70 with memory and attention complaints (no gain in 2025 trial): A 2025 trial of 101 adults with self-reported memory and attention problems found no difference from placebo after 12 weeks in verbal learning, attention or working memory. The authors say bacopa did not give greater cognitive improvement. | 9 14 11 5 4 | |
| Better Focus | Low certainty | Speed of attention and reaction time: A 2014 meta-analysis of 9 placebo-controlled trials (518 people) found a shorter Trail B time and a shorter choice reaction time with bacopa extracts taken for 12 weeks or more. The authors said a large head-to-head trial is still needed. Children and teenagers (attention and behaviour): A 2016 review of 5 studies in children and teenagers reported small-to-medium improvements in language behaviour, some memory areas, hyperactivity and attention-deficit measures (mean effect size 0.42). Only 2.3% of participants reported mild side effects. The authors call for replicated trials. | 9 14 8 | |
| Healthy Aging | Low certainty | Memory and Stroop test in healthy older adults: In a 2008 trial of 54 healthy people aged 65 or older, 12 weeks of a standardised bacopa extract improved delayed word recall and a Stroop task compared with placebo. Divided attention, a digit working-memory test, mood and blood pressure did not change. | 3 | |
| Stress Reduction | Very low certainty | Stress and fatigue: In a 2025 trial of 101 adults, the bacopa group reported greater drops in stress reactivity (p = 0.03) and in fatigue and stress after a demanding computer task than the placebo group. These were secondary outcomes and the authors say they need testing again. | 11 | |
| Calm Relaxation | Very low certainty | Anxiety and depression scores in older adults: In the 2008 trial of 54 healthy older adults, depression scores (CESD-10), combined anxiety scores and heart rate fell in the bacopa group and rose in the placebo group. Mood scores and blood pressure did not change. StatPearls says bacopa is used traditionally for anxiety, but trial support was not otherwise confirmed here. | 3 15 | |
| Brain Health | Very low certainty | Alzheimer's disease dementia: A 2022 review found 5 trials, all at high risk of bias, with 3 using bacopa mixed with other herbs. The reviewers rated the evidence very low certainty and found no difference between bacopa and placebo or donepezil. No major safety issues were reported. | 2 | |
| Better Sleep | Low certainty | Sleep quality: In the 2024 mild cognitive impairment trial, bacopa had no effect on sleep quality scores. Traditional use for insomnia is described by StatPearls, but we found no trial support. | 6 15 | |
| Mood Balance | Not enough evidence | Schizophrenia: A 2025 systematic review of 9 studies says bacopa could reverse some symptoms in schizophrenia and lists lab-type effects on glutamate, GABA and antioxidants. The abstract does not say how many studies were in people, so this cannot be taken as proof. | 1 |
B. Body systems
| Connected to | Kind of connection | Evidence status | Context | Studies |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Brain | Biological association | Low certainty | Studied for: Memory (free recall) in adults without dementia Studied for: Speed of attention and reaction time | 13 11 9 14 3 5 4 6 2 8 1 |
| Nervous System | Biological association | Low certainty | Studied for: Memory (free recall) in adults without dementia Studied for: Stress and fatigue | 13 11 3 15 6 |
C. Body parts and organs
| Connected to | Kind of connection | Evidence status | Context | Studies |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Thyroid | Adverse effect or risk | Animal data | A mouse study found raised T4. Preparation or compound: Leaf extract |
7 |
| Digestive system | Adverse effect or risk | Documented risk | Stomach upset, more frequent stools and cramps are the commonest side effects. Stomach upset and cramps are the commonest side effects. Preparation or compound: Bacopa extracts |
15 11 |
I. Biomarkers
| Connected to | Kind of connection | Evidence status | Context | Studies |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Trail B time (seconds or ms) | Biological association | Low certainty | Measured in trials: shorter (small). A lab change is not the same as a health benefit. | 9 |
| Choice reaction time (ms) | Biological association | Low certainty | Measured in trials: shorter (small). A lab change is not the same as a health benefit. | 9 |
| Delayed word recall (AVLT) | Biological association | Low certainty | Measured in trials: better in one trial. A lab change is not the same as a health benefit. | 3 11 |
| Blood BDNF, MDA and acetylcholinesterase activity | Biological association | Low certainty | Measured in trials: no change. A lab change is not the same as a health benefit. | 11 |
| Depression score (CESD-10) | Biological association | Very low certainty | Measured in trials: lower in one small trial. A lab change is not the same as a health benefit. | 3 |
| State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (combined) | Biological association | Very low certainty | Measured in trials: lower in one small trial. A lab change is not the same as a health benefit. | 3 |
| Montreal Cognitive Assessment (MoCA) overall score | Biological association | Very low certainty | Measured in trials: higher at the end (one trial). A lab change is not the same as a health benefit. | 6 |
| Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index | Biological association | Low certainty | Measured in trials: no change. A lab change is not the same as a health benefit. | 6 |
J. Genes, receptors and enzymes
| Connected to | Kind of connection | Evidence status | Context | Studies |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Acetylcholinesterase | Preliminary mechanism | Lab / human blood marker | Reported to be inhibited by bacopa in lab work; blood activity was unchanged in a 2025 trial. | 7 11 |
| CYP2C9, CYP2C19, CYP1A2, CYP2D6, CYP3A4 | Preliminary mechanism | Lab | Reported to be inhibited by bacopa in lab studies. | 7 |
L. Active compounds
| Connected to | Kind of connection | Evidence status | Context | Studies |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Bacosides (triterpenoid saponins) | Biological association | Review | StatPearls says triterpenoid saponins are believed to be responsible for most of the herb's pharmacological actions. This is a belief, not a proof. Preparation or compound: Leaf extracts |
15 |
| Bacopasaponin C | Biological association | Review | The review lists it among bacopa saponins. It also lists alkaloids and cucurbitacins as constituents. Preparation or compound: Ethanol extracts |
7 |
Each connection is stored with the ingredient, the connected record, the kind of connection, the evidence status, the supporting studies, the preparation or compound involved, and a review date (last reviewed October 26, 2026).
Evidence at a glance: what the research found for 13 outcomes
Each outcome below is one thing researchers measured. Certainty is how far the evidence can be trusted, not how well it works. The full studies are on the next tab.
The evidence
The research centre for Bacopa monnieri. Every record here was checked against PubMed or the publisher's page; we never list a study we have not verified.
Evidence by outcome
Bars show how many studies we found for each outcome, not how well it works. People are added up across trials only (reviews are not added, to avoid double counting).
How we rate evidence
High certainty
Several well-run trials or reviews agree; further research is unlikely to change the picture much.
Moderate certainty
Good trials point the same way, but some doubt remains.
Low certainty
Small, short or inconsistent trials. The finding could change with better research.
Very low certainty
Very little or very weak human data. Treat as a possibility only.
Mixed findings
Trials or reviews disagree with each other.
Not enough evidence
Not enough human research to say either way.
Evidence against
Good research found no benefit, or found harm.
We take the reviewers' own risk-of-bias and GRADE statements where they exist, and otherwise judge from study size, design, consistency, directness and whether a product matches what is sold. Many publications do not make evidence high. Method note: We started from our existing bacopa summary, re-checked each cited PubMed study through its title and abstract, read the open-access text of a 2025 review for safety details, and checked the plant name against GBIF. LiverTox and StatPearls were read as short database summaries only.
Study library: every study we checked 16
| Study | Design | People | Product, dose, length | Result |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Ayilara 2025 Effectiveness of Bacopa Monnieri (Brahmi) in the management of schizophrenia: a systematic review. Nutr Neurosci · PMID 39498770 · DOI |
Systematic review mixed (not stated) |
9 studies on schizophrenia; the abstract does not say how many were in people | Bacopa monnieri (Brahmi) Not given Not given · vs Not given in the abstract |
The authors say bacopa 'could reverse' symptoms and describe effects on glutamate and GABA signalling, antioxidant markers and acetylcholinesterase. The abstract does not say how many of the 9 studies were in people, so this cannot be read as proof that it works in patients. No numbers in the abstract (Not applicable) Methods, limits and fundingOutcomes: Positive, negative and cognitive symptoms; mechanisms Limitations: Thematic analysis, no quality grading in the abstract; the mechanisms listed are typical of lab and animal work. Read from the abstract only. Funding and conflicts: Not stated in the abstract. Read: abstract |
| Basheer 2022 Use of Bacopa monnieri in the Treatment of Dementia Due to Alzheimer Disease: Systematic Review of Randomized Controlled Trials. Interact J Med Res · PMID 35612544 · DOI |
Systematic review |
5 trials in people with dementia or mild cognitive impairment due to Alzheimer disease | Bacopa monnieri (2 trials alone, 3 in combination with other herbs) Extract Doses varied (125 mg to 500 mg twice a day across trials) Varied · vs Placebo or donepezil |
All five trials were judged at high risk of bias. The reviewers rated the evidence very low certainty and found no difference between bacopa and placebo or donepezil. No major safety issues were reported in the trials. No difference versus placebo or donepezil (very low certainty) (Not applicable) Methods, limits and fundingOutcomes: Memory and thinking scores (MMSE, ADAS-Cog and others) and safety Limitations: Small trials, mixed products, high risk of bias. Read from the abstract only. Funding and conflicts: Conflicts of interest: none declared. Registration: PROSPERO CRD42020169421 Read: abstract |
| Calabrese 2008 Effects of a standardized Bacopa monnieri extract on cognitive performance, anxiety, and depression in the elderly: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. J Altern Complement Med · PMID 18611150 · DOI |
Randomised controlled trial |
54 Healthy people aged 65 or older (mean 73.5) without signs of dementia; 48 finished |
Standardised Bacopa monnieri whole-plant dry extract Whole plant, dry extract 300 mg a day (studied in the trial) 12 weeks after a 6-week placebo run-in · vs Placebo tablet |
Bacopa group had better delayed word recall and Stroop results than placebo. Depression scores, anxiety scores and heart rate fell in the bacopa group and rose in the placebo group. No effect on divided attention, the digit task, mood or blood pressure. Few side effects (9 bacopa, 10 placebo), mostly stomach upset. Statistical details not in the abstract (Not reported in the abstract) Methods, limits and fundingOutcomes: Delayed word recall (AVLT), Stroop task, divided attention, letter-digit working memory, anxiety, depression, mood, vital signs Limitations: Small trial (54 people, 48 finished). Results come from adjusting for baseline memory scores. Read from the abstract only. Funding and conflicts: Research support from the US National Institutes of Health (extramural); product source not stated in the abstract. Read: abstract |
| Cave 2023 A systematic review of the safety and efficacy on cognitive function of herbal and nutritional medicines in older adults with and without subjective cognitive impairment. Syst Rev · PMID 37592293 · DOI |
Systematic review |
21 randomised trials in older adults with and without subjective cognitive impairment; 6 used bacopa | Herbal and nutritional medicines (ginkgo in 8 trials, bacopa in 6) Various Mostly 12 weeks · vs Placebo |
14 of 21 trials reported improvement in at least one thinking area. But 14 of 21 had a high risk of bias, 6 had some concerns and only 1 had a low risk. The authors conclude the quality of evidence on benefit and safety is low. 14/21 trials reported some improvement; 14/21 high risk of bias (Not applicable) Methods, limits and fundingOutcomes: Cognitive function and safety Limitations: Mixes many products; the abstract gives no separate bacopa result. Read from the abstract only. Funding and conflicts: Authors declare no conflicts; one author had PhD scholarship support from a supplement company that played no role. Read: abstract |
| Crawford 2021 Dietary Supplement Ingredients for Optimizing Cognitive Performance Among Healthy Adults: A Systematic Review. J Altern Complement Med · PMID 34370563 · DOI |
Systematic review |
Healthy adults; 69 publications on nine ingredients including bacopa | Nine supplement ingredients including Bacopa monnieri, choline, creatine, omega-3, ginkgo, ginseng, rhodiola, tyrosine and valerian Various Various serving sizes Various · vs Placebo |
The authors rate the certainty as low: studies were inconsistent and imprecise, many were methodologically flawed, and it is not always known what is in a supplement product. They say the data hinder recommendations for consumers. No pooled numbers in the abstract (Not applicable) Methods, limits and fundingOutcomes: Cognitive performance and safety Limitations: Covers nine ingredients; the abstract gives no bacopa-only result. Read from the abstract only. Funding and conflicts: Not stated in the abstract. Read: abstract |
| Delfan 2024 Evaluating the effects of Bacopa monnieri on cognitive performance and sleep quality of patients with mild cognitive impairment: A triple-blinded, randomized, placebo-controlled trial. Explore (NY) · PMID 38538390 · DOI |
Randomised controlled trial |
62 People with mild cognitive impairment |
Bacopa monnieri extract (one pill a day) Extract 160 mg pill (studied in the trial) 2 months · vs Starch-powder pill |
The abstract reports no significant difference between groups for overall cognition or six sub-scores at the first and second time points, yet also says the overall score was significant at the third (p = 0.029). Attention (p = 0.004 at the end) and verbal fluency (p = 0.003) differed. No difference in sleep quality. Overall MoCA: p = 0.029 at the final time point only (Not reported) Methods, limits and fundingOutcomes: Montreal Cognitive Assessment (MoCA) and Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index Limitations: Small trial; the abstract wording about time points is not fully consistent. Read from the abstract only. Funding and conflicts: Not stated in the abstract. Read: abstract |
| Gościniak 2025 Bacopa monnieri: Preclinical and Clinical Evidence of Neuroactive Effects, Safety of Use and the Search for Improved Bioavailability. Nutrients · PMID 40507208 · DOI |
Narrative review |
Review of lab, animal and human work on bacopa, with a safety section | Bacopa monnieri Extract |
Open-access review (full text read). Says bacopa is generally non-toxic with no serious side effects reported, that the most common side effects are digestive, and that interactions with some medicines and a caution in hyperthyroidism should be considered. It reports lab findings that bacopa inhibits several liver enzymes (CYP2C9, 2C19, 1A2, 2D6, 3A4), mentions agomelatine and moclobemide reports, a mouse thyroxine rise, and says safety in pregnancy and breastfeeding is not studied. No pooled numbers (Not applicable) Methods, limits and fundingOutcomes: Constituents, mechanisms, safety, contraindications, interactions Limitations: Narrative review: many statements rest on animal or lab work or on sources not re-opened here. Interaction reports were not traced to the original papers. Funding and conflicts: Authors declare no conflicts of interest; funded by the National Science Centre, Poland. Read: full-text |
| Kean 2016 A systematic review of the Ayurvedic medicinal herb Bacopa monnieri in child and adolescent populations. Complement Ther Med · PMID 27912958 · DOI |
Systematic review |
Children and adolescents; 5 studies | Bacopa monnieri Extract Not given in the abstract Varied · vs Varied (placebo in most) |
Reported significant improvements in the language-behaviour domain, some memory areas, hyperactivity and attention-deficit measures, with small-to-medium effect sizes. Only 2.3% of participants reported mild side effects. The authors call for replicated, well-designed studies. Mean effect size d = 0.42 (Not reported) Methods, limits and fundingOutcomes: Cognition, behaviour, attention and safety Limitations: Only 5 studies, varied in design; no limits on study design. Read from the abstract only. Funding and conflicts: Not stated in the abstract. Read: abstract |
| Kongkeaw 2014 Meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials on cognitive effects of Bacopa monnieri extract. J Ethnopharmacol · PMID 24252493 · DOI |
Systematic review meta analysis |
518 9 randomised placebo-controlled trials, 518 people; 437 eligible for the pooled test results |
Standardised Bacopa monnieri extracts taken for 12 weeks or more Extract Not given in the abstract 12 weeks or longer · vs Placebo |
Pooled results showed a shorter Trail B time and a shorter choice reaction time with bacopa. The authors say bacopa 'has the potential to improve cognition', mainly speed of attention, and that only a large head-to-head trial will give definite data. Trail B -17.9 ms; choice reaction time -10.6 ms (reported as given in the abstract) (Trail B 95% CI -24.6 to -11.2; choice reaction time 95% CI -12.1 to -9.2) Methods, limits and fundingOutcomes: Trail B time and choice reaction time (speed-of-attention tests) Limitations: Differences were measured in test time units; what they mean for daily life is not shown. Read from the abstract only. Funding and conflicts: Not stated in the abstract. Read: abstract |
| LiverTox: Clinical and Research Information on Drug-Induced Liver Injury 2012 Bacopa monnieri (LiverTox, NIH/NIDDK). LiverTox (NCBI Bookshelf) · PMID 38718157 |
Reference database n/a |
Drug-induced liver injury reference | Bacopa (herbal extract of the leaves) Leaf extract |
Says bacopa is a leaf extract used in Ayurveda for centuries for anxiety, insomnia, epilepsy and memory, and that it has not been linked to liver enzyme rises during therapy nor to clinically apparent acute liver injury. No numbers in the abstract (Not applicable) Methods, limits and fundingOutcomes: Liver safety Limitations: Only the short database summary was read; the full page was blocked. The record date is the PubMed entry year. Funding and conflicts: Not applicable Read: abstract |
| Lopresti 2025 The Effects of a Bacopa monnieri Extract (Bacumen) on Cognition, Stress, and Fatigue in Healthy Adults: A Randomized, Double-Blind, Placebo-Controlled Trial. Clin Drug Investig · PMID 41091332 · DOI |
Randomised controlled trial |
101 Adults aged 40-70 with self-reported memory and attention problems; 87 finished |
Bacopa monnieri extract (a branded extract) Extract 300 mg a day (studied in the trial) 12 weeks · vs Placebo |
No difference between groups in verbal learning (p = 0.391), attention (p = 0.713) or working memory (p = 0.610). The bacopa group had greater falls in self-reported stress reactivity (p = 0.03) and in fatigue and stress after a demanding computer task. No group differences in blood levels of BDNF, MDA or acetylcholinesterase activity. Adverse reactions were more frequent with bacopa (p = 0.024), mainly digestive complaints and headaches; none were serious. Primary cognitive outcomes: no significant difference (p-values only) Methods, limits and fundingOutcomes: Verbal learning, attention and working memory (primary); stress, mood, fatigue and blood markers (secondary) Limitations: The stress and fatigue results were secondary outcomes and need confirming. A single extract was tested. Read from the abstract only. Funding and conflicts: Authors run a research company that has received funding from supplement companies; the funder is not named in the abstract and was not involved in data collection or interpretation. Registration: ANZCTR ACTRN12623000475640 Read: abstract |
| Mishra 2016 Studies on metals and pesticide content in some Ayurvedic formulations containing Bacopa monnieri L. J Integr Med · PMID 26778228 · DOI |
Laboratory analysis n/a |
12 12 samples of Ayurvedic formulations containing bacopa (Brahmi Vati, Brahmi Ghrita, Saraswat Churna) from six manufacturers, bought in Varanasi, India |
Ayurvedic formulations containing Bacopa monnieri Formulations |
All four metals were found in all samples but below the permitted limits. Several pesticide residues (HCH isomers, DDT and DDE, oxamyl) were detected in some samples. The authors say metal content was too low to cause toxicity but every batch needs testing. Metals below permitted limits in 12/12 samples; pesticides detected in some (Not applicable) Methods, limits and fundingOutcomes: Lead, cadmium, chromium and nickel; organochlorine pesticide residues Limitations: Small sample, Indian Ayurvedic formulations, not capsule extracts sold elsewhere. Read from the abstract only. Funding and conflicts: Not stated in the abstract. Read: abstract |
| Pase 2012 The cognitive-enhancing effects of Bacopa monnieri: a systematic review of randomized, controlled human clinical trials. J Altern Complement Med · PMID 22747190 · DOI |
Systematic review |
Adults without dementia or significant cognitive impairment; 6 trials, all 12 weeks | Bacopa monnieri extracts (three different extracts) Extract Trials used 300-450 mg of extract a day (as reported by the review) 12 weeks · vs Placebo |
Across the 6 trials, bacopa improved performance on 9 of 17 memory free-recall tests. There was little evidence of benefit in other thinking skills. The authors call research on bacopa's effects on the brain 'in its infancy'. 9 of 17 free-recall tests improved (Not reported in the abstract) Methods, limits and fundingOutcomes: Memory and other thinking tests Limitations: Few trials, three different extracts, inconsistent tests across thinking skills. Read from the abstract only. Funding and conflicts: Not stated in the abstract; the record lists non-US government research support. Read: abstract |
| Tiemtad 2026 Comparative effects of Bacopa monnieri and Ginkgo biloba on cognitive functions: A systematic review and network meta-analysis. Phytomedicine · PMID 41678913 · DOI |
Network meta analysis |
2107 29 randomised trials in healthy adults |
Bacopa monnieri (Brahmi) extract versus Ginkgo biloba extract versus placebo, compared indirectly Extract Bands used in the analysis: lower (300 to under 600 mg a day) and higher (600 mg a day or more) bacopa groups Varied by trial · vs Placebo and ginkgo (indirect) |
The higher-amount bacopa group scored better on working memory than placebo and than the ginkgo groups, and also better on short-term memory. Delayed memory was better in the lower-amount bacopa group than placebo and low-amount ginkgo. No significant differences were seen for sustained attention, selective attention or processing speed. The authors say the lack of direct comparisons may limit the strength of the evidence. Working memory, higher-amount bacopa versus placebo: SMD 2.03 (95% CI 1.28 to 2.78) Methods, limits and fundingOutcomes: Working memory, short-term memory, delayed memory, sustained attention, selective attention, processing speed Limitations: Indirect comparisons only (no head-to-head trials). The very large effect sizes are unusual for this field and should be read with caution. Read from the abstract only. Funding and conflicts: Authors declare no competing interests; supported by a Thai public research programme (Royal Golden Jubilee Ph.D. Program). Registration: PROSPERO CRD420251034900 Read: abstract |
| Walker 2023 Bacopa monnieri (StatPearls). StatPearls (NCBI Bookshelf) · PMID 36943953 |
Reference database n/a |
Clinical reference for health professionals | Bacopa monnieri |
Says bacopa is used in Ayurvedic medicine for memory, insomnia, epilepsy and anxiety. Many clinical studies are said to show better verbal learning, delayed word recall and less anxiety. Triterpenoid saponins are believed to drive most of its actions. It has a high therapeutic index and is generally well tolerated. Most common side effects are digestive: more frequent stools, nausea and abdominal cramps. No numbers in the abstract (Not applicable) Methods, limits and fundingOutcomes: Uses, side effects and cautions Limitations: Abstract of a study-guide chapter; the full chapter page was blocked, so it was not read. Funding and conflicts: Not applicable Read: abstract |
| s-gbif-bacopa-monnieri GBIF Backbone Taxonomy: Bacopa monnieri (L.) Pennell (usage key 3171169) · Source |
Reference database n/a |
Methods, limits and fundingRead: api-record |
What we do not know yet
- No trial longer than 12 weeks was read.
- No head-to-head trial against ginkgo or a prescription memory medicine was read.
- The medicine-interaction reports were not traced to their original papers.
- No human study of bacopa and thyroid hormones was read.
- NCCIH, MedlinePlus, FDA and EMA statements on bacopa were not found or not read.
- Which extract works best, and whether results matter in daily life, was not shown.
How new research is added
New studies are found by a saved PubMed search and placed in a review queue before the page changes.
Lab markers
What changed in blood or saliva tests during trials. A changed number is not the same as feeling or being healthier, and we give no "normal ranges".
Other 8
Trail B time (seconds or ms)
Shorter (small) in trials
A paper-and-pencil test of how fast a person links numbers and letters in order; shorter means faster mental switching.
Low certaintyResults and what it means
Why it was measured
To see whether bacopa speeds up attention switching.
Statistical vs. clinical meaning
A small time change on a lab test; the meaning for daily life is not shown.
Safety implication
Digestive side effects may occur.
| Study | Result | People | Product |
|---|---|---|---|
| 9 | Pooled difference -17.9 ms (95% CI -24.6 to -11.2) | 9 trials, 518 people (437 eligible for pooled test results) | Standardised bacopa extract for 12 weeks or more |
Choice reaction time (ms)
Shorter (small) in trials
How quickly a person picks the right response when there are several choices.
Low certaintyResults and what it means
Why it was measured
To see whether bacopa quickens responses.
Statistical vs. clinical meaning
A very small difference in milliseconds.
Safety implication
Digestive side effects may occur.
| Study | Result | People | Product |
|---|---|---|---|
| 9 | Pooled difference about -10.6 ms (95% CI -12.1 to -9.2) | 9 trials, 518 people | Standardised bacopa extract for 12 weeks or more |
Delayed word recall (AVLT)
Better in one trial in trials
How many words from a learned list a person remembers after a delay.
Low certaintyResults and what it means
Why it was measured
The main memory test in the 2008 older-adult trial.
Statistical vs. clinical meaning
One positive and one null trial.
Safety implication
Few side effects in either trial.
| Study | Result | People | Product |
|---|---|---|---|
| 3 | Bacopa group had better delayed recall than placebo after adjusting for baseline cognitive deficit (numbers not in the abstract) | 54 healthy adults aged 65 or older | Standardised extract for 12 weeks |
| 11 | No between-group difference in verbal learning (p = 0.391) | 101 adults aged 40-70 with memory complaints | Branded extract for 12 weeks |
Blood BDNF, MDA and acetylcholinesterase activity
No change in trials
Blood markers linked in lab work to nerve growth (BDNF), oxidative damage (MDA) and the enzyme that breaks down acetylcholine.
Low certaintyResults and what it means
Why it was measured
To test whether bacopa changes the blood chemistry proposed to explain its effects.
Statistical vs. clinical meaning
The proposed mechanism was not seen in blood in this trial.
Safety implication
None specific.
| Study | Result | People | Product |
|---|---|---|---|
| 11 | No group differences in changes in blood concentrations | 101 adults aged 40-70 | Branded extract for 12 weeks |
Depression score (CESD-10)
Lower in one small trial in trials
A 10-question scale of how often a person felt low in the past week.
Very low certaintyResults and what it means
Why it was measured
To see whether bacopa changes mood scores.
Statistical vs. clinical meaning
Healthy people, so this is not evidence for treating depression.
Safety implication
Stomach upset was the main side effect.
| Study | Result | People | Product |
|---|---|---|---|
| 3 | Scores fell in the bacopa group and rose in the placebo group (numbers not in the abstract) | 54 healthy older adults | Standardised extract for 12 weeks |
State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (combined)
Lower in one small trial in trials
A questionnaire scoring how anxious a person feels now and in general.
Very low certaintyResults and what it means
Why it was measured
To see whether bacopa lowers anxiety scores.
Statistical vs. clinical meaning
A secondary measure in healthy volunteers.
Safety implication
As above.
| Study | Result | People | Product |
|---|---|---|---|
| 3 | Combined state plus trait anxiety fell in the bacopa group and rose in placebo (numbers not in the abstract) | 54 healthy older adults | Standardised extract for 12 weeks |
Montreal Cognitive Assessment (MoCA) overall score
Higher at the end (one trial) in trials
A 30-point screening test of memory, attention and language.
Very low certaintyResults and what it means
Why it was measured
The main thinking measure in the mild cognitive impairment trial.
Statistical vs. clinical meaning
Inconsistent timing and a small trial.
Safety implication
No safety figures in the abstract.
| Study | Result | People | Product |
|---|---|---|---|
| 6 | Overall score difference p = 0.029 at the final time point; no difference at the earlier points | 62 people with mild cognitive impairment | Bacopa extract for 2 months |
Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index
No change in trials
A questionnaire scoring sleep quality over the past month.
Low certaintyResults and what it means
Why it was measured
To test whether bacopa improves sleep.
Statistical vs. clinical meaning
No sleep benefit found.
Safety implication
None noted.
| Study | Result | People | Product |
|---|---|---|---|
| 6 | No significant difference between groups at any time point (P > 0.05) | 62 people with mild cognitive impairment | Bacopa extract for 2 months |
Safety
What studies and official sources say about side effects, medicines and who should check first. Each point shows what kind of evidence it comes from.
Main points to know 4
- Stomach and bowel upset is the most common side effect. StatPearls lists more frequent stools, nausea and abdominal cramps as the most common side effects. In a 2025 trial, adverse reactions were reported more often with bacopa than placebo (mainly digestive complaints and headaches), and none were serious. A 2008 trial of older adults reported few side effects, mostly stomach upset. Reference text and randomised trials 15 11 3
- Medicine interactions are mostly lab-based or reported in a review, not proven in people. A 2025 review says lab work shows bacopa blocks several liver enzymes (CYP2C9, 2C19, 1A2, 2D6, 3A4) that break down many medicines, and describes reports with the antidepressants amitriptyline, agomelatine and moclobemide. We could not trace those reports to the original papers. Because the enzyme effect has not been tested properly in people, ask a pharmacist before combining bacopa with any prescription medicine. Narrative review (lab findings and unchecked reports) 7
- Thyroid: a signal in mice only. The same review says a mouse study found a leaf extract raised the thyroid hormone T4 by 41%, and so advises caution in an overactive thyroid and for people on thyroid medicines. This is animal evidence only; no human thyroid study was read. Animal study as reported by a review 7
- Pregnancy and breastfeeding: not enough information. The 2025 review says safety in pregnant and breastfeeding women has not been studied. In mice, a bacopa extract caused reversible suppression of sperm production and fertility, according to the review. With no human data, ask a doctor before using bacopa when pregnant, breastfeeding or trying to conceive. Review statement and animal data 7
Side effects 4
| Effect | How often | Severity and recovery | Evidence |
|---|---|---|---|
| Digestive upset: more frequent stools, nausea, abdominal cramps The 2025 review says one study linked these effects to the cholinergic (acetylcholine-raising) action of bacopa. That explanation is not proven. | Not given as a single figure. In a 2008 trial, 9 bacopa and 10 placebo participants had adverse events, mostly stomach upset. | Usually mild Not stated in the sources read. | Reference text and randomised trial 15 3 7 |
| Headache One trial of 101 adults. | Reported mainly with digestive complaints in the bacopa group of a 2025 trial (p = 0.024 for more adverse reactions overall). | Mild; no serious reactions Not stated in the abstract. | Randomised trial 11 |
| Mild side effects in children and teenagers Safety was well reported in 80% of the 5 studies. This is not advice to give bacopa to children. | 2.3% of all participants across the reviewed studies reported mild side effects. | Mild Not stated. | Systematic review 8 |
| Slow heart rate, worsening asthma or COPD, urinary blockage, stomach ulcer (theoretical) The review says bacopa raises acetylcholine, so people prone to these problems should consult a doctor. This is a precaution, not reported harm. | No cases were found in the sources read. | Not known Not known | Theoretical (mechanism based statement in a review) 7 |
Liver
NIH's LiverTox reference says bacopa has not been linked to liver enzyme elevations during use or to clinically apparent acute liver injury. A rat study described in the 2025 review found raised AST and urea nitrogen at a very high dose over 90 days, but that is animal evidence. 10 7
How often. No human liver injury cases were found in the sources read.
Monitoring. No agency monitoring advice was found.
This is a safety connection. It is not evidence that Bacopa monnieri supports liver health.
Medicines and supplements 5
| With | Why it matters | Importance | Evidence | What to do |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Medicines broken down by liver enzymes CYP2C9, CYP2C19, CYP1A2, CYP2D6 and CYP3A4 prescription | Lab studies, as described by a 2025 review, show bacopa inhibits these enzymes, which could raise blood levels of some drugs. | The review says this could cause side effects of such drugs, but gives no human study that measured it. | Review of lab findings Very low certainty 7 | Ask a pharmacist whether your medicines are affected. |
| Amitriptyline (antidepressant) prescription | The review says bacopa reduced first-pass metabolism and clearance of amitriptyline (enzymes CYP3A and CYP2C). | Stated in the review; the original study type (lab, animal or human) was not checked. | Review statement, original not checked Very low certainty 7 | Ask your prescriber or pharmacist before combining. |
| Agomelatine and moclobemide (antidepressants) prescription | The review reports that back pain and heavy sweating occurred with agomelatine and a heart attack with moclobemide when taken with bacopa extract. | These are reported cases the review cites; the original papers were not read and cause is not established. | Review statement of reports, original not checked Very low certainty 7 | Do not combine bacopa with antidepressants without asking your prescriber. |
| Cholinesterase-inhibitor medicines for Alzheimer's (donepezil, galantamine) prescription | Bacopa is reported in lab work to inhibit acetylcholinesterase, so effects could add up. | The review warns of a possible 'radical increase' in acetylcholine and notes early work suggesting a synergistic effect with galantamine on thinking; it says more research on side-effect risk is needed. | Review (lab based mechanism and early study) Very low certainty 7 2 | Ask the prescribing doctor before adding bacopa. |
| Thyroid hormone medicines and overactive thyroid prescription | A mouse study found a leaf extract raised T4 by 41% (as reported by the review). | No human thyroid study was read. | Animal study reported in a review Very low certainty 7 | If you have a thyroid condition or take thyroid medicine, ask your doctor first. |
Who should check first 6
| Situation | Advice | Evidence |
|---|---|---|
| Pregnancy and breastfeeding | The 2025 review says safety has not been studied in pregnant and breastfeeding women. Ask a doctor before use. | Review statement; no human data 7 |
| Children and teenagers | A 2016 review of 5 studies reported only 2.3% mild side effects, but these studies were few and small. Ask a paediatrician before giving any herbal supplement to a child. | Systematic review 8 |
| Overactive thyroid or thyroid medicines | A mouse study found a thyroid hormone rise, and a review advises caution. Ask your doctor. | Animal data via review 7 |
| Slow heart rate, stomach ulcers, asthma or COPD, or a blocked urinary tract | The review says bacopa's acetylcholine-raising action could make these worse in theory. Ask a doctor first. | Theoretical (mechanism based) 7 |
| Dementia or taking Alzheimer's medicines | Trials in Alzheimer's disease are small and low quality, and bacopa should not replace prescribed treatment. Ask the prescribing doctor before adding it. | Systematic review and narrative review 2 7 |
| Allergy | No bacopa allergy reports were found in the sources read. Stop and seek care if you get hives, swelling or trouble breathing. | No source found |
Overdose, product quality and regulators
Summary. StatPearls says bacopa has a high therapeutic index and is generally well tolerated, and the 2025 review calls it generally non-toxic with no serious side effects reported. Animal doses far above human use did show some changes.
Animal. As described by the 2025 review: 500 mg/kg in rats for 90 days lowered appetite and raised albumin, urea nitrogen and AST, with no notable organ-weight changes; a mouse study found reversible suppression of sperm production and fertility without effects on libido.
High dose or long term signals. No long-term human safety trial beyond 12 weeks was read.
Overdose response. Not described in the sources read. For a suspected overdose or reaction call poison control or emergency services.
Genotoxicity. Not researched.
A 2016 lab study of 12 Ayurvedic formulations containing bacopa found four heavy metals (lead, cadmium, chromium, nickel) in every sample but below permitted limits, and some pesticide residues (such as HCH isomers and DDT) in some samples. A 2021 review notes that it is not always known what is in a supplement.
Heavy metals and pesticides in Ayurvedic bacopa products. In 12 samples bought in India, metals were below limits; several pesticide residues were detected in some samples. The authors say every batch should be tested. 12
Product contents not always known. The 2021 review of nine ingredients said the low certainty of the science is made worse by not always knowing what is in a supplement. 5
| Body | Action | Date |
|---|---|---|
| NIH LiverTox (NIDDK) (United States) | Says bacopa has not been linked to liver enzyme elevations during therapy or to clinically apparent acute liver injury. source | 2012 |
| StatPearls (NCBI Bookshelf) (United States) | Describes bacopa as generally well tolerated; most common side effects are increased stool frequency, nausea and abdominal cramps. source | 2023-01 |
When to get medical help
- A very slow or irregular heartbeat, fainting, or chest pain after starting bacopa, especially with antidepressants or Alzheimer's medicines: get medical care at once.
- Swelling of the face or lips, hives or trouble breathing: stop and call emergency services.
- Severe or lasting stomach pain, vomiting, black or bloody stools: stop and see a doctor.
- Yellow skin or eyes, or dark urine: stop and see a doctor the same day (no link to bacopa is known, but these signs always need a check).
- Symptoms of an overactive thyroid (racing heart, tremor, heat intolerance, weight loss): see a doctor if you use bacopa.
Stop using the product and contact a clinician or emergency service. In the US, Poison Control is 1-800-222-1222.
General information only, not medical advice. Ask a clinician or pharmacist before use, especially with medicines, in pregnancy or with a health condition. See the Natural Remedy Safety guide.
Frequently asked questions
What is Bacopa monnieri?
Does bacopa improve memory?
Is bacopa better than ginkgo?
Nobody has tested them head to head. A 2026 indirect comparison reported better working memory with bacopa, but the authors say the lack of direct comparisons limits the evidence.
Does bacopa help anxiety or stress?
What are the side effects of bacopa?
Does bacopa interact with medicines?
Possibly. A 2025 review says lab work shows bacopa blocks several liver enzymes and reports problems with some antidepressants, and it warns about Alzheimer's drugs and thyroid medicines. These are lab, animal or unchecked reports, not proven in people. Ask a pharmacist.
Can bacopa harm the liver?
NIH's LiverTox says bacopa has not been linked to liver enzyme rises or clinically apparent liver injury. That is a short summary; absence of reports is not proof of safety.
Is bacopa safe in pregnancy or breastfeeding?
Not known. A 2025 review says safety in pregnant and breastfeeding women has not been studied, and a mouse study found reversible effects on fertility. Ask a doctor first.
Is bacopa safe for children?
A 2016 review of 5 small studies reported mild side effects in 2.3% of children and teenagers, but it calls for better trials. Ask a paediatrician before giving any herbal supplement to a child.
Does bacopa help Alzheimer's disease or dementia?
Not proven. A 2022 review of 5 trials, all at high risk of bias, found no difference from placebo or donepezil, with very low certainty.
Are bacopa products pure?
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Editorial transparency
- Written by
- AlternativeMed editorial team. Research compiled with AI assistance, then checked against the sources listed.
- Medical review
- None. This page has not been reviewed by a physician or pharmacist.
- First published
- 2026-10-26
- Last substantive update
- 2026-10-26
- How we research
- We started from our existing bacopa summary, re-checked each cited PubMed study through its title and abstract, read the open-access text of a 2025 review for safety details, and checked the plant name against GBIF. LiverTox and StatPearls were read as short database summaries only.
- How we rate evidence
- See "How we rate evidence" in the Evidence tab.
- Independence
- No product is promoted on this page. No affiliate links are shown. The 2025 trial was run by a company that receives funding from supplement companies; other trials' funding was not always stated in abstracts.
Sources 16
Each source was opened and checked. Where we read only the abstract, it says so. The small numbers in the text point here.
- Ayilara GO, Owoyele BV. Effectiveness of Bacopa Monnieri (Brahmi) in the management of schizophrenia: a systematic review.. Nutr Neurosci. 2025. PMID 39498770. DOI 10.1080/1028415X.2024.2421782. (abstract)
- Basheer A, Agarwal A, Mishra B, Gupta A, Padma Srivastava MV, Kirubakaran R, Vishnu V. Use of Bacopa monnieri in the Treatment of Dementia Due to Alzheimer Disease: Systematic Review of Randomized Controlled Trials.. Interact J Med Res. 2022. PMID 35612544. DOI 10.2196/38542. (abstract)
- Calabrese C, Gregory WL, Leo M, Kraemer D, Bone K, Oken B. Effects of a standardized Bacopa monnieri extract on cognitive performance, anxiety, and depression in the elderly: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial.. J Altern Complement Med. 2008. PMID 18611150. DOI 10.1089/acm.2008.0018. (abstract)
- Cave AE, Chang DH, Münch GW, Steiner-Lim GZ. A systematic review of the safety and efficacy on cognitive function of herbal and nutritional medicines in older adults with and without subjective cognitive impairment.. Syst Rev. 2023. PMID 37592293. DOI 10.1186/s13643-023-02301-6. (abstract)
- Crawford C, Boyd C, Deuster PA. Dietary Supplement Ingredients for Optimizing Cognitive Performance Among Healthy Adults: A Systematic Review.. J Altern Complement Med. 2021. PMID 34370563. DOI 10.1089/acm.2021.0135. (abstract)
- Delfan M, Kordestani-Moghaddam P, Gholami M, Kazemi K, Mohammadi R. Evaluating the effects of Bacopa monnieri on cognitive performance and sleep quality of patients with mild cognitive impairment: A triple-blinded, randomized, placebo-controlled trial.. Explore (NY). 2024. PMID 38538390. DOI 10.1016/j.explore.2024.02.008. (abstract)
- Gościniak A, Stasiłowicz-Krzemień A, Szeląg M, Pawlak J, Skiera I, Kwiatkowska H, Nowak N, Bernady K, Trzaskoma P, Zimak-Krótkopad O, Cielecka-Piontek J. Bacopa monnieri: Preclinical and Clinical Evidence of Neuroactive Effects, Safety of Use and the Search for Improved Bioavailability.. Nutrients. 2025. PMID 40507208. DOI 10.3390/nu17111939. (full-text)
- Kean JD, Downey LA, Stough C. A systematic review of the Ayurvedic medicinal herb Bacopa monnieri in child and adolescent populations.. Complement Ther Med. 2016. PMID 27912958. DOI 10.1016/j.ctim.2016.09.002. (abstract)
- Kongkeaw C, Dilokthornsakul P, Thanarangsarit P, Limpeanchob N, Norman Scholfield C. Meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials on cognitive effects of Bacopa monnieri extract.. J Ethnopharmacol. 2014. PMID 24252493. DOI 10.1016/j.jep.2013.11.008. (abstract)
- LiverTox: Clinical and Research Information on Drug-Induced Liver Injury. Bacopa monnieri (LiverTox, NIH/NIDDK).. LiverTox (NCBI Bookshelf). 2012. PMID 38718157. (abstract)
- Lopresti AL, Smith SJ. The Effects of a Bacopa monnieri Extract (Bacumen) on Cognition, Stress, and Fatigue in Healthy Adults: A Randomized, Double-Blind, Placebo-Controlled Trial.. Clin Drug Investig. 2025. PMID 41091332. DOI 10.1007/s40261-025-01492-1. (abstract)
- Mishra A, Mishra AK, Tiwari OP, Jha S. Studies on metals and pesticide content in some Ayurvedic formulations containing Bacopa monnieri L.. J Integr Med. 2016. PMID 26778228. DOI 10.1016/S2095-4964(16)60241-8. (abstract)
- Pase MP, Kean J, Sarris J, Neale C, Scholey AB, Stough C. The cognitive-enhancing effects of Bacopa monnieri: a systematic review of randomized, controlled human clinical trials.. J Altern Complement Med. 2012. PMID 22747190. DOI 10.1089/acm.2011.0367. (abstract)
- Tiemtad P, Ingkaninan K, Temkitthawon P, Thimkorn P, Rattanachaisit N, Teaktong T, Dhippayom T. Comparative effects of Bacopa monnieri and Ginkgo biloba on cognitive functions: A systematic review and network meta-analysis.. Phytomedicine. 2026. PMID 41678913. DOI 10.1016/j.phymed.2026.157915. (abstract)
- Walker EA, Pellegrini MV. Bacopa monnieri (StatPearls).. StatPearls (NCBI Bookshelf). 2023. PMID 36943953. (abstract)
- . GBIF Backbone Taxonomy: Bacopa monnieri (L.) Pennell (usage key 3171169). . . (api-record)
Where to buy
Check the label first. Whatever you buy, look for these:
- The amount of the active ingredient per serving, not just the front-label claim
- A third-party testing mark (USP, NSF or ConsumerLab)
- Other ingredients and allergens
- Ask a pharmacist about interactions with your medicines
Talk to a pharmacist or doctor before you start any supplement, especially if you take medicines. See the Safety tab for interactions.
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