Vitamins & Supplements · Nootropic
Phosphatidylserine
Phosphatidylserine (PS) · also called PS, PtdSer, Fosfatidilserina
Phosphatidylserine is a fat found in every cell membrane, most of all in nerve cells. The body makes it, and supplements are sold for memory and focus. Trials in older adults are mixed: the largest soy-PS trial found no benefit, and positive results come mostly from subgroups and blends. It is generally well tolerated in trials of up to about 6 months, but ask a doctor or pharmacist first, especially if you take medicines.
General information, not medical advice. Last substantive update · Not medically reviewed. A named clinician has not signed off on this page. How this page is made
About Phosphatidylserine
Phosphatidylserine is a fat the body makes and uses in cell membranes. Supplements are sold for memory. Trials are mixed, products differ, and safety is good in short trials but not studied with medicines.
What phosphatidylserine is
Phosphatidylserine (PS) is a fat in cell membranes, most abundant in nerve cells. The body makes it from two other membrane fats. A 2024 review says PS on the outside of a cell helps clear dying cells and start blood clotting.
Supplements are not vitamins or minerals. They are sold for memory, focus and stress. The body makes its own PS, so it is not an essential nutrient.
Which product was tested
Trial products differ. Early research used PS from cattle brain. A 2011 safety paper says concern about BSE (mad cow disease) led to alternatives such as soy PS. Other trials used PS bound to the omega-3 fats DHA or EPA, blends with phosphatidic acid, or capsules that also held ALA, ginkgo and B vitamins.
A result for one product may not apply to another. Several positive trials tested blends, so PS alone is not shown to be the cause.
What the research found
Memory in older adults: mixed. The largest soy-PS trial (120 adults, 12 weeks) found no difference from placebo. Other trials found gains in subgroups or with blends. A 2023 review puts PS among ingredients with some evidence and asks for better long-term trials.
ADHD in children: a 2021 meta-analysis of three trials found a small benefit for inattention, rated low quality. A trial in children with epilepsy was null. Alzheimer's disease: only a small pilot of a blend and a pooled analysis with an unclear sign. Stress, exercise, PMS and diabetes vessel function: single small trials.
Food and the FDA claim
We did not find a source giving PS amounts in foods, so none are stated here.
The US FDA's listing of qualified health claim letters includes three phosphatidylserine letters from 2003 and 2004 about cognitive dysfunction and dementia. We could not open the letters, so we do not say what they require.
At a glance
Traditional uses history, not proof
- A normal fat in cell membranes made by the body
- Sold as a memory and focus supplement
Studied for research
- Normal role in the body, high certainty (not a supplement benefit)
- Memory in older adults, mixed
- ADHD symptoms in children, low certainty
- Alzheimer's disease and mild cognitive impairment, insufficient
- Stress, exercise, PMS and blood vessel function in diabetes, very-low certainty
Main compounds
- Soy-derived PS
- PS bound to DHA or EPA (omega-3)
- PS plus phosphatidic acid blends
- Cattle-brain PS (older source)
Common forms
- Capsules and softgels
- Blends with omega-3, ginkgo, B vitamins, caffeine or taurine
Research links: 2021 meta-analysis: PS for ADHD in children (3 trials) · 2023 review: over-the-counter memory supplements · 2026 network meta-analysis: supplements in Alzheimer's disease and mild cognitive impairment · 2001 trial: soy PS in age-associated memory impairment (null) · 2002 trial: safety of soy PS in older adults · 2024 review: PS synthesis, metabolism and nutrition · Research Library · Genes & Biomarkers Library
What it is and its history
- Accepted scientific name
- Phosphatidylserine (PS or PtdSer, a membrane phospholipid)
- Common names
- Phosphatidylserine (English); PS (English (abbreviation)); PtdSer (English (abbreviation)); Fosfatidilserina (Spanish)
- Family or group
- Glycerophospholipid, a main negatively charged membrane fat. The body makes it from phosphatidylcholine or phosphatidylethanolamine (2024 review).
- Harvest and processing
- Supplement PS is made from soy lecithin (trials read) or from marine sources; older PS came from cattle brain (2011 safety paper). How soy PS is made was not read beyond the 2024 review's mention of enzymatic synthesis with phospholipase D.
- Look-alikes and adulterants
- Name: Choline and phosphatidylcholine; Note: Different compounds. Choline is an essential nutrient; phosphatidylcholine is a different membrane fat from which the body can make PS.; Name: Citicoline and alpha-GPC; Note: Choline-related brain supplements, often reviewed with PS but chemically different.
- Sustainability and conservation
- Not assessed.
Traditional use and history history, not clinical proof
| Tradition or era | Documented use | Source |
|---|---|---|
| Early research | Early memory research used PS from cattle brain. Concern about BSE contamination later led to alternatives such as soy PS. | p21711517 |
Traditional use shows how it was used. It does not show that it works or is safe today.
What is inside, and how it may work
What it contains and how those compounds act in cells and animals. Laboratory and animal mechanisms are not proven effects in people.
Main compounds
| Compound | Family | Where it is concentrated | Activity studied | Level of evidence |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Soy-derived phosphatidylserine | phospholipid source | Soybean lecithin (enzyme-converted) Not read from a source. | Studied for memory in older adults (null and mixed results), ADHD, exercise and safety. 8 10 9 6 | Human data |
| Cattle-brain-derived phosphatidylserine | phospholipid source | Not read from a source. | Used in early studies; replaced because of BSE concerns (per a 2011 paper). 25 | Human data |
| Phosphatidylserine bound to DHA or EPA (PS-DHA, PS-Omega3) | marine-sourced phospholipid | Not read from a source. | Tested in older adults with memory complaints and in children with ADHD. 24 15 25 16 21 | Human data |
| PS plus phosphatidic acid blends | phospholipid blend | Soy lecithin Not read from a source. | Tested in Alzheimer's disease (pilot) and premenstrual syndrome. 20 22 | Human data |
Mechanisms, receptors and pathways
| Target or pathway | Gene or receptor | What was found | Level |
|---|---|---|---|
| Cell membranes, signalling and neurotransmission | PS synthase-1 and PS synthase-2 make PS in the endoplasmic reticulum (per review) | A 2024 review describes PS as a main membrane fat, rich in nerve-cell membranes, that takes part in membrane signalling pathways, neuroinflammation, neurotransmission and synaptic refinement. Whether swallowed PS changes this in people was not shown. 7 | Human review of mostly lab work |
| Clearing dying cells and starting blood clotting | PS exposed on the outer cell surface | PS on the outer face of a cell is essential for removing apoptotic cells and starting the clotting cascade (2024 review). This describes the body's own PS, not a supplement effect. 7 | Lab / established physiology |
| Blood messenger molecules and omega-3 levels (combination capsule) | Serum acetylcholine, GABA, serotonin, ALA, EPA, DHA | In the 12-month mild cognitive impairment trial, the PS-containing capsule raised these blood levels compared with placebo, and about 20% of the short-term memory gain was statistically mediated by serum ALA. The capsule also contained ALA, ginkgo and B vitamins, so this cannot be credited to PS. 2 | Human (combination product) |
| ADAM17 enzyme and vascular insulin signalling | ADAM17 | In cells, isolated arteries and diabetic mice, PS bound to and blocked ADAM17 and lowered vascular oxidative stress. A short human trial in type 2 diabetes saw better blood-flow response and lower artery stiffness. 18 | Lab / animal and early human |
Absorption, metabolism and elimination
- Absorption
- In healthy volunteers who swallowed a PS plus phosphatidic acid product once, blood PS peaked 90 minutes after ingestion and returned to baseline by 180 minutes (pilot study).
- Distribution
- A narrative review claims swallowed PS crosses the blood-brain barrier. This was not shown in the trials read.
- Metabolism
- Not read from a source beyond the body's own PS making and recycling.
- Elimination
- Not read from a source.
- Bioavailability
- Not compared across soy, marine or cattle-brain PS in the sources read.
Isolated compounds versus whole extracts
PS is made by the body and is found in foods, but no source read gave amounts in foods or compared food PS with pills. Supplement trials used PS from soy, PS bound to omega-3 or blends with other ingredients. Trial results are product-specific and may not carry across.
Nutritional composition
No food-source amounts were found. USDA FoodData Central was not searched for PS content, and the sources read do not give per-portion amounts. The body also makes its own PS, so it is not an essential vitamin or mineral.
1 high certainty1 mixed findings1 low certainty4 very low certainty2 not enough evidence
What was looked at
The 9 benefits and uses checked for Phosphatidylserine, each with how strong the evidence is. Tap one to open it.
- Normal role in the body (not a supplement benefit)High certainty
- Memory in older adults with memory complaintsMixed findings
- Alzheimer's disease and mild cognitive impairmentNot enough evidence
- ADHD symptoms in childrenLow certainty
- Chronic stress and cortisol responseVery low certainty
- Exercise performance and recoveryVery low certainty
- Premenstrual syndrome (PMS)Very low certainty
- Blood vessel function in type 2 diabetesVery low certainty
- Thinking skills in mood, substance use and psychotic disordersNot enough evidence
Lab markers tracked in the studies
Mini-Mental State Examination (MMSE) scoreInattention score (ADHD ratings)Delayed verbal recall (word-list memory)Cortisol response to stressTime to exhaustion at 85% of maximum effortAortic pulse wave velocity
What is Phosphatidylserine good for?
The studied uses and how strong the human evidence is for each. Most results are from small trials, often of blends rather than PS alone.
Benefits, one by one
Each card is a research question, not a promise. Tap a goal to filter. Open a card to see the studies, doses and limits.
Normal role in the body (not a supplement benefit)
High certaintyPhosphatidylserine (PS) is a fat found in every cell membrane, most of all in nerve cells. The body makes it. It helps cells send signals, clear away dying cells and start blood clotting.
1 studiesPS made by the body, and PS from food and supplements. Forms are cove…
Studies, doses and limits
What the trials found
A 2024 review of PS biochemistry and nutrition describes these roles. It is a review, not a trial.
Results
PS is a normal body fat with real jobs. This does not show that taking more of it adds anything in people who already make enough.
Effect sizes as reported
No effect sizes apply: these are body roles, not trial results.
Why this rating
High that PS is a normal and needed membrane fat (a 2024 review). This says nothing about supplement benefit.
Form and dose studied
PS made by the body, and PS from food and supplements. Forms are covered in the identity section.
Who was studied
Everyone.
Limits
Read from the abstract only.
Why researchers looked
People ask what PS is before asking whether a pill helps.
Traditional use
Phosphatidylserine is a fat the body makes and uses in cell membranes. Its everyday role is well established; that is different from showing that extra pills help a condition.
Proposed mechanism Established biology
A 2024 review says the body makes PS from two other membrane fats (phosphatidylcholine or phosphatidylethanolamine) using two enzymes in the endoplasmic reticulum. PS on the outer face of a cell is needed to clear dying cells and to start the clotting cascade.
A proposed mechanism does not show that the effect happens in people.
Nothing to add here; see the Safety tab for supplement cautions.
Memory in older adults with memory complaints
Mixed findingsTrials in older people with memory complaints give mixed results. One 12-week trial of soy PS found no benefit over placebo. Other trials found gains only in some tests, in subgroups, or with products that also contained omega-3, ginkgo and B vitamins.
7 studiesSoy PS (100 to 600 mg a day in trials), PS bound to DHA (300 mg PS a …
Studies, doses and limits
What the trials found
The largest null trial gave soy PS to 120 older adults with age-associated memory impairment for 12 weeks and found no difference from placebo on word recall, other memory tests, reaction time or attention. A 6-month trial in 78 Japanese adults with memory complaints saw test scores rise in every group including placebo, but PS groups with lower starting scores gained on delayed verbal recall compared with their own baseline. A 15-week trial of PS bound to DHA (a marine omega-3) in 157 older adults found better immediate verbal recall than placebo, with the stronger gains in a post-hoc subgroup. A 12-month trial in 190 people with mild cognitive impairment used a mixed capsule (omega-3 ALA, PS, ginkgo flavonoids, B vitamins, folic acid) and found better arithmetic, similarity and short-term memory scores, but about a fifth of the short-term memory gain was linked to a rise in blood ALA. A 2023 review of memory supplements put PS in an 'some evidence' group and said stronger long-term trials are needed. An older 2003 review found PS gave consistently modest gains on word-list recall in older adults with moderate impairment but not on every test.
Results
Mixed. There is no clear, repeated benefit of PS alone. The positive trials used different products, subgroups or combinations, and the biggest soy-PS trial was null.
Effect sizes as reported
No single effect size. Mixed-model results in the 12-month combination trial: short-term memory beta 0.600 (95% CI 0.399 to 0.800).
Why this rating
Mixed because the biggest soy-PS trial was null, positive results come from subgroups and blends, and reviews call the evidence limited.
Form and dose studied
Soy PS (100 to 600 mg a day in trials), PS bound to DHA (300 mg PS a day), and a PS plus ALA plus ginkgo plus vitamins capsule. These products are not interchangeable.
Who was studied
Older adults with memory complaints, age-associated memory impairment or mild cognitive impairment.
Limits
Small trials, mostly 3 to 12 months; some results come from post-hoc subgroups; several tested blends; funding is often not stated in abstracts.
Why researchers looked
PS is sold for memory and thinking as people age.
Traditional use
Cattle-brain PS was used in early research; soy and marine sources were developed later. The trials read here used soy PS or PS bound to omega-3.
Proposed mechanism Unproven in humans
Not established in people. Animal studies suggest PS affects nerve-cell membranes (2003 review); the trials here do not show how PS would help memory.
A proposed mechanism does not show that the effect happens in people.
Trials report PS was well tolerated. See the Safety tab.
Alzheimer's disease and mild cognitive impairment
Not enough evidenceEvidence that PS helps people who already have Alzheimer's disease or mild cognitive impairment is thin. A small early trial of a PS plus phosphatidic acid blend found steadier daily functioning in Alzheimer's disease over 2 months. A 2026 analysis of 29 trials found a small MMSE gain linked to PS but no gain on the other main test.
3 studiesPS plus phosphatidic acid blend (pilot); PS 100 mg group in a pooled …
Studies, doses and limits
What the trials found
A pilot trial gave a PS and phosphatidic acid blend (300 mg PS and 240 mg phosphatidic acid a day) or placebo for 2 months to people with Alzheimer's disease. Daily functioning stayed unchanged with the blend and fell from 5.62 to 4.90 with placebo (group difference P=0.021). Fewer people got worse (3.8% against 17.9%) but that was not significant (P=0.066). A 2026 network analysis of 29 trials (about 2,000 people with Alzheimer's disease or mild cognitive impairment) listed PS 100 mg among several supplements linked to better MMSE scores, but no supplement improved ADAS-Cog. A 2003 review noted that a single older study of PS in probable Alzheimer's disease failed to show a benefit.
Results
Insufficient. The pilot was small, short and tested a blend. The pooled analysis rests on one small dose group, and the abstract's sign convention is unclear. Nothing here shows PS slows or treats the disease.
Effect sizes as reported
MMSE for PS 100 mg versus placebo: mean difference -1.14 as printed (95% CI -1.86 to -0.41); sign unclear. Daily functioning in the pilot: group difference P=0.021.
Why this rating
Insufficient because the evidence is one small early pilot of a blend, one analysis with an unclear sign, and a historical note of a negative study.
Form and dose studied
PS plus phosphatidic acid blend (pilot); PS 100 mg group in a pooled analysis.
Who was studied
Older adults with Alzheimer's disease or mild cognitive impairment.
Limits
Pilot with several non-significant outcomes; blend, not PS alone; pooled analysis mixes many supplements; funding not stated.
Why researchers looked
People with memory loss and their families look for something to slow it.
Traditional use
Phosphatidylserine is a fat the body makes and uses in cell membranes. Its everyday role is well established; that is different from showing that extra pills help a condition.
Proposed mechanism Unproven in humans
Not established. The small blend trial and the pooled analysis do not explain how PS would act.
A proposed mechanism does not show that the effect happens in people.
Anyone with memory loss should see a doctor first; supplements are not a replacement for medical care.
ADHD symptoms in children
Low certaintyA small meta-analysis found PS may lower inattention in children with ADHD, but the quality of the evidence is low. Overall ADHD symptoms and hyperactivity were not clearly better. A trial in children who also had epilepsy found no benefit.
5 studiesSoy PS and PS bound to omega-3, in trials (see Studies). Products dif…
Studies, doses and limits
What the trials found
A 2021 meta-analysis of three randomised trials (216 children) found a small benefit on inattention (effect size 0.36, 95% CI 0.07 to 0.64) but no significant effect on overall ADHD symptoms or hyperactivity-impulsivity, and rated the evidence as low quality. A small trial of 36 children aged 4 to 14 given soy PS for 2 months reported better ADHD ratings and short-term auditory memory. A 200-child trial of PS bound to omega-3 reported improvement on one parent-rated subscale, with the stronger effects in an exploratory subgroup. A 74-child trial in children with epilepsy and ADHD found no difference from placebo (stopped early, underpowered). A 2026 systematic review of citicoline and PS trials in mental disorders found mixed results in ADHD (three of five studies positive) and high risk of bias.
Results
Low-certainty, mixed. Some small trials show gains in attention; others show none; none is large.
Effect sizes as reported
Inattention effect size 0.36 (95% CI 0.07 to 0.64). Epilepsy trial: inattention score change -1.57 (PS-omega-3) against -2.90 (placebo), p=0.33.
Why this rating
Low because the meta-analysis authors rate the evidence low, the trials were few and small, and one trial was null.
Form and dose studied
Soy PS and PS bound to omega-3, in trials (see Studies). Products differ.
Who was studied
Children with ADHD (ages 4 to 16 in these trials).
Limits
Three small trials in the meta-analysis; very different products; parent ratings can be biased; one trial stopped early.
Why researchers looked
Parents look for supplements for attention, and a few trials tested PS in children.
Traditional use
Phosphatidylserine is a fat the body makes and uses in cell membranes. Its everyday role is well established; that is different from showing that extra pills help a condition.
Proposed mechanism Unproven in humans
Not established in children.
A proposed mechanism does not show that the effect happens in people.
A child's ADHD should be managed with a doctor. Do not swap prescribed treatment for a supplement.
Chronic stress and cortisol response
Very low certaintyOne 12-week trial in 60 healthy men found no overall effect of PS bound to omega-3 on stress. In men with high chronic stress, stress ratings were lower and a blunted cortisol response returned toward normal.
1 studiesPS bound to omega-3 (omega-3 PS).
Studies, doses and limits
What the trials found
The 2012 trial gave omega-3 PS or placebo to 60 healthy non-smoking men aged 30 to 60 for 12 weeks. There was no significant main effect. In the high chronic stress subgroup, stress was lower and the cortisol response to a lab stress test was restored.
Results
Very-low. One small trial, benefit only in a subgroup, and the product was PS with omega-3.
Effect sizes as reported
No overall effect; subgroup only; numbers not in the abstract.
Why this rating
Very-low because it is one small trial with a subgroup result and an omega-3 blend.
Form and dose studied
PS bound to omega-3 (omega-3 PS).
Who was studied
Healthy men aged 30 to 60.
Limits
Subgroup analysis after a null overall result; men only.
Why researchers looked
PS is sold as a stress and cortisol supplement.
Traditional use
Phosphatidylserine is a fat the body makes and uses in cell membranes. Its everyday role is well established; that is different from showing that extra pills help a condition.
Proposed mechanism Hypothesis
Not established. The authors suggest PS may act on the body's stress hormone system (the HPA axis).
A proposed mechanism does not show that the effect happens in people.
None specific.
Exercise performance and recovery
Very low certaintyThe few exercise trials are small and mixed. One found longer time to exhaustion; another found no help with muscle soreness; two used PS with caffeine, taurine or both.
4 studiesSoy PS; PS with caffeine; PS with taurine and caffeine. Trial amounts…
Studies, doses and limits
What the trials found
In 14 active men, 750 mg a day of soy PS for 10 days lengthened time to exhaustion at 85% of maximum effort (7:51 to 9:51 minutes with PS; placebo unchanged), with no effect on cortisol or feeling states. In 8 men, 750 mg a day for 7 days before and 2 days after a downhill run did not reduce muscle soreness, creatine kinase, myoglobin, IL-6 or lipid hydroperoxides. A 2013 trial of PS with caffeine for 2 weeks reduced post-exercise perceived fatigue and mood disturbance but not thinking performance. A 2026 trial in 97 professional football players tested PS (300 or 600 mg a day) added to taurine and caffeine for 14 days and found group differences in sprint, reaction time, Stroop and mental fatigue, but PS alone cannot be separated from the other ingredients.
Results
Very-low. Tiny trials, two with other active ingredients, and one clear null result.
Effect sizes as reported
Time to exhaustion about 2 minutes longer with PS in 14 men (P=0.005 for group effect).
Why this rating
Very-low because the trials are tiny, short and partly multi-ingredient.
Form and dose studied
Soy PS; PS with caffeine; PS with taurine and caffeine. Trial amounts are in the Studies table.
Who was studied
Active or recreationally trained adults; professional male football players.
Limits
Very small samples; combinations; short; participant numbers sometimes not in the abstract.
Why researchers looked
Athletes use PS for stress, fatigue and recovery.
Traditional use
Phosphatidylserine is a fat the body makes and uses in cell membranes. Its everyday role is well established; that is different from showing that extra pills help a condition.
Proposed mechanism Hypothesis
Not established.
A proposed mechanism does not show that the effect happens in people.
Caffeine in blends has its own cautions; see the Safety tab.
Premenstrual syndrome (PMS)
Very low certaintyA small trial of a PS plus phosphatidic acid product found lower total PMS symptom scores, but several parts were not significant and the product is not PS alone.
1 studiesPS plus phosphatidic acid complex.
Studies, doses and limits
What the trials found
Forty women with PMS took a product with 400 mg PS and 400 mg phosphatidic acid a day, or placebo, for three cycles. The total daily symptom score improved more (p=0.001) and so did physical symptoms (p=0.002). Depressive symptoms (p=0.068), lost productivity (p=0.052) and relationship interference (p=0.099) were not significantly different, and the number of women still meeting PMS or PMDD criteria did not differ.
Results
Very-low. One small trial of a branded blend.
Effect sizes as reported
Daily symptom total p=0.001; several other parts not significant.
Why this rating
Very-low because it is one 40-woman trial of a PS plus phosphatidic acid product from a named maker.
Form and dose studied
PS plus phosphatidic acid complex.
Who was studied
Women aged 18 to 45 with PMS.
Limits
Small; blend; maker's product.
Why researchers looked
PS has been tried for cycle-related mood and physical symptoms.
Traditional use
Phosphatidylserine is a fat the body makes and uses in cell membranes. Its everyday role is well established; that is different from showing that extra pills help a condition.
Proposed mechanism Hypothesis
Not established. The trial also measured cortisol and found small changes.
A proposed mechanism does not show that the effect happens in people.
None specific.
Blood vessel function in type 2 diabetes
Very low certaintyAn early 2026 study in people with type 2 diabetes found PS improved a blood-flow response and an artery-stiffness measure over 4 weeks. It is lab-style, short work and does not show long-term benefit.
1 studiesOral PS product (about 280 mg PS a day).
Studies, doses and limits
What the trials found
In adults with type 2 diabetes, 900 mg a day of a product delivering about 280 mg of PS for 4 weeks increased leg blood flow after an oral glucose load and lowered aortic pulse wave velocity. The abstract does not give the number of people.
Results
Very-low. Very new, short, small trial of vascular measures only.
Effect sizes as reported
Better leg blood flow response and lower pulse wave velocity; numbers not in the abstract.
Why this rating
Very-low because it is one new short trial of surrogate measures, with lab and mouse work.
Form and dose studied
Oral PS product (about 280 mg PS a day).
Who was studied
Adults with type 2 diabetes.
Limits
Number of people not in the abstract; 4 weeks; surrogate measures.
Why researchers looked
Researchers tested whether PS could protect blood vessels in diabetes.
Traditional use
Phosphatidylserine is a fat the body makes and uses in cell membranes. Its everyday role is well established; that is different from showing that extra pills help a condition.
Proposed mechanism Lab animal and human
In cells and diabetic mice, PS blocked an enzyme called ADAM17 and lowered vascular oxidative stress. The human trial measured blood-flow and artery-stiffness effects.
A proposed mechanism does not show that the effect happens in people.
People with diabetes should not add supplements without asking their doctor.
Thinking skills in mood, substance use and psychotic disorders
Not enough evidenceA 2026 review of 11 controlled studies of citicoline and PS found mixed, inconsistent results in mood disorders, alcohol and substance use disorders and schizophrenia, with high risk of bias.
1 studiesPS or citicoline, alone or added to usual treatment.
Studies, doses and limits
What the trials found
Eleven controlled studies (ten randomised): five in children with ADHD, the rest in adults with mood disorders, alcohol and substance use disorders and schizophrenia. A single schizophrenia study found better verbal free recall but no global gain. Others were mixed or null. The review's authors say the evidence does not support these products as cognitive enhancers.
Results
Insufficient. The review pools citicoline and PS and finds inconsistent results at high risk of bias.
Effect sizes as reported
No pooled numbers.
Why this rating
Insufficient because results were inconsistent and biased.
Form and dose studied
PS or citicoline, alone or added to usual treatment.
Who was studied
Adults and children with mental disorders.
Limits
Few studies per condition; citicoline and PS combined; bias.
Why researchers looked
PS and citicoline are marketed as thinking aids.
Traditional use
Phosphatidylserine is a fat the body makes and uses in cell membranes. Its everyday role is well established; that is different from showing that extra pills help a condition.
Proposed mechanism Unproven in humans
Not established.
A proposed mechanism does not show that the effect happens in people.
Do not replace prescribed treatment with a supplement.
Connections to the rest of health
How Phosphatidylserine connects to the rest of our health knowledge graph. Every link says what kind of connection it is. A safety link (for example to the liver) is a warning, not a benefit. A study that merely mentions a topic never creates a benefit link.
Explore every connection: goals, body systems, organs, symptoms, genes
A. Wellness goals
| Connected to | Kind of connection | Evidence status | Context | Studies |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Memory Support | High certainty | Normal role in the body (not a supplement benefit): Phosphatidylserine (PS) is a fat found in every cell membrane, most of all in nerve cells. The body makes it. It helps cells send signals, clear away dying cells and start blood clotting. | 7 | |
| Memory Support | Mixed findings | Memory in older adults with memory complaints: Trials in older people with memory complaints give mixed results. One 12-week trial of soy PS found no benefit over placebo. Other trials found gains only in some tests, in subgroups, or with products that also contained omega-3, ginkgo and B vitamins. Alzheimer's disease and mild cognitive impairment: Evidence that PS helps people who already have Alzheimer's disease or mild cognitive impairment is thin. A small early trial of a PS plus phosphatidic acid blend found steadier daily functioning in Alzheimer's disease over 2 months. A 2026 analysis of 29 trials found a small MMSE gain linked to PS but no gain on the other main test. | 8 10 24 2 5 17 3 20 14 | |
| Brain Health | Mixed findings | Memory in older adults with memory complaints: Trials in older people with memory complaints give mixed results. One 12-week trial of soy PS found no benefit over placebo. Other trials found gains only in some tests, in subgroups, or with products that also contained omega-3, ginkgo and B vitamins. | 8 10 24 2 5 17 3 | |
| Better Focus | Low certainty | ADHD symptoms in children: A small meta-analysis found PS may lower inattention in children with ADHD, but the quality of the evidence is low. Overall ADHD symptoms and hyperactivity were not clearly better. A trial in children who also had epilepsy found no benefit. | 1 6 15 21 13 | |
| Stress Reduction | Very low certainty | Chronic stress and cortisol response: One 12-week trial in 60 healthy men found no overall effect of PS bound to omega-3 on stress. In men with high chronic stress, stress ratings were lower and a blunted cortisol response returned toward normal. | 4 | |
| Peak Performance | Very low certainty | Exercise performance and recovery: The few exercise trials are small and mixed. One found longer time to exhaustion; another found no help with muscle soreness; two used PS with caffeine, taurine or both. | 11 12 26 19 | |
| Muscle Recovery | Very low certainty | Exercise performance and recovery: The few exercise trials are small and mixed. One found longer time to exhaustion; another found no help with muscle soreness; two used PS with caffeine, taurine or both. | 11 12 26 19 | |
| Womens Wellness | Very low certainty | Premenstrual syndrome (PMS): A small trial of a PS plus phosphatidic acid product found lower total PMS symptom scores, but several parts were not significant and the product is not PS alone. | 22 | |
| Healthy Circulation | Very low certainty | Blood vessel function in type 2 diabetes: An early 2026 study in people with type 2 diabetes found PS improved a blood-flow response and an artery-stiffness measure over 4 weeks. It is lab-style, short work and does not show long-term benefit. | 18 | |
| Blood Sugar Balance | Very low certainty | Blood vessel function in type 2 diabetes: An early 2026 study in people with type 2 diabetes found PS improved a blood-flow response and an artery-stiffness measure over 4 weeks. It is lab-style, short work and does not show long-term benefit. | 18 | |
| Mental Clarity | Not enough evidence | Thinking skills in mood, substance use and psychotic disorders: A 2026 review of 11 controlled studies of citicoline and PS found mixed, inconsistent results in mood disorders, alcohol and substance use disorders and schizophrenia, with high risk of bias. | 13 |
B. Body systems
| Connected to | Kind of connection | Evidence status | Context | Studies |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Nervous System | Biological association | High certainty | Studied for: Normal role in the body (not a supplement benefit) Studied for: Memory in older adults with memory complaints | 7 8 10 24 2 5 17 3 20 14 1 6 15 21 13 |
| Brain Focus | Biological association | Mixed findings | Studied for: Memory in older adults with memory complaints Studied for: Alzheimer's disease and mild cognitive impairment | 8 10 24 2 5 17 3 20 14 1 6 15 21 13 |
| Stress Mood | Biological association | Very low certainty | Studied for: Chronic stress and cortisol response | 4 |
| Bones Joints Muscles | Biological association | Very low certainty | Studied for: Exercise performance and recovery | 11 12 26 19 |
| Energy Fatigue | Biological association | Very low certainty | Studied for: Exercise performance and recovery | 11 12 26 19 |
| Reproductive Health | Biological association | Very low certainty | Studied for: Premenstrual syndrome (PMS) | 22 |
| Heart Circulation | Biological association | Very low certainty | Studied for: Blood vessel function in type 2 diabetes | 18 |
| Blood Sugar Support | Biological association | Very low certainty | Studied for: Blood vessel function in type 2 diabetes | 18 |
I. Biomarkers
| Connected to | Kind of connection | Evidence status | Context | Studies |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Mini-Mental State Examination (MMSE) score | Biological association | Not enough evidence | Measured in trials: better in one pooled analysis (uncertain). A lab change is not the same as a health benefit. | 14 |
| Inattention score (ADHD ratings) | Biological association | Low certainty | Measured in trials: lower in meta-analysis (low certainty). A lab change is not the same as a health benefit. | 1 21 |
| Delayed verbal recall (word-list memory) | Biological association | Mixed findings | Measured in trials: higher in some trials, unchanged in another. A lab change is not the same as a health benefit. | 10 24 8 |
| Cortisol response to stress | Biological association | Very low certainty | Measured in trials: restored in a high-stress subgroup. A lab change is not the same as a health benefit. | 4 |
| Time to exhaustion at 85% of maximum effort | Biological association | Very low certainty | Measured in trials: longer in one small trial. A lab change is not the same as a health benefit. | 11 |
| Aortic pulse wave velocity | Biological association | Very low certainty | Measured in trials: lower after PS (very early). A lab change is not the same as a health benefit. | 18 |
J. Genes, receptors and enzymes
| Connected to | Kind of connection | Evidence status | Context | Studies |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| ADAM17 | Preliminary mechanism | Lab and early human | PS blocked this enzyme in lab and mouse studies; an early human trial followed. | 18 |
K. Biological pathways
| Connected to | Kind of connection | Evidence status | Context | Studies |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Phosphatidylcholine / phosphatidylethanolamine to PS exchange | Preliminary mechanism | Human review | The body makes PS from these two membrane fats (PS synthase-1 and -2). | 7 |
L. Active compounds
| Connected to | Kind of connection | Evidence status | Context | Studies |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Soy-derived phosphatidylserine | Biological association | Human | Studied for memory in older adults (null and mixed results), ADHD, exercise and safety. Preparation or compound: Soybean lecithin (enzyme-converted) |
8 10 9 6 |
| Cattle-brain-derived phosphatidylserine | Biological association | Human | Used in early studies; replaced because of BSE concerns (per a 2011 paper). | 25 |
| Phosphatidylserine bound to DHA or EPA (PS-DHA, PS-Omega3) | Biological association | Human | Tested in older adults with memory complaints and in children with ADHD. | 24 15 25 16 21 |
| PS plus phosphatidic acid blends | Biological association | Human | Tested in Alzheimer's disease (pilot) and premenstrual syndrome. Preparation or compound: Soy lecithin |
20 22 |
Each connection is stored with the ingredient, the connected record, the kind of connection, the evidence status, the supporting studies, the preparation or compound involved, and a review date (last reviewed October 26, 2026).
Evidence at a glance: what the research found for 9 outcomes
Each outcome below is one thing researchers measured. Certainty is how far the evidence can be trusted, not how well it works. The full studies are on the next tab.
The evidence
The research centre for Phosphatidylserine. Every record here was checked against PubMed or the publisher's page; we never list a study we have not verified.
Evidence by outcome
Bars show how many studies we found for each outcome, not how well it works. People are added up across trials only (reviews are not added, to avoid double counting).
How we rate evidence
High certainty
Several well-run trials or reviews agree; further research is unlikely to change the picture much.
Moderate certainty
Good trials point the same way, but some doubt remains.
Low certainty
Small, short or inconsistent trials. The finding could change with better research.
Very low certainty
Very little or very weak human data. Treat as a possibility only.
Mixed findings
Trials or reviews disagree with each other.
Not enough evidence
Not enough human research to say either way.
Evidence against
Good research found no benefit, or found harm.
We take the reviewers' own risk-of-bias and GRADE statements where they exist, and otherwise judge from study size, design, consistency, directness and whether a product matches what is sold. Many publications do not make evidence high. Method note: We started from our existing phosphatidylserine summary, then searched PubMed and re-read abstracts for reviews and trials, read the open-access full text of one safety paper, and read the FDA qualified health claims listing. Only abstracts were read for most studies. The FDA letters and the EFSA site could not be opened.
Study library: every study we checked 26
| Study | Design | People | Product, dose, length | Result |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Bruton 2021 Phosphatidylserine for the Treatment of Pediatric Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. J Altern Complement Med · PMID 33539192 · DOI |
Systematic review meta analysis |
216 4 studies in children with ADHD (344 children) in the review; 3 randomised trials (216 children) in the meta-analysis |
Phosphatidylserine Supplement (forms varied) 200 to 300 mg a day (trial amount) · vs Placebo |
Inattention symptoms were lower with phosphatidylserine than placebo. Overall ADHD symptoms and hyperactivity-impulsivity were not significantly different. The authors rate the evidence as low quality. Inattention: effect size 0.36. Overall ADHD symptoms: 0.76 (not significant). Hyperactivity-impulsivity: 0.24 (not significant). (Inattention 95% CI 0.07 to 0.64 (p=0.01); overall ADHD -0.07 to 1.60 (p=0.07); hyperactivity-impulsivity -0.04 to 0.53 (p=0.09)) Methods, limits and fundingOutcomes: Inattention, overall ADHD symptoms, hyperactivity-impulsivity Limitations: Only three small trials; low-quality evidence by GRADE; the abstract does not say which trials used which product. Funding and conflicts: Authors list a US National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health training grant; no industry funding named in the abstract. Read: abstract |
| Duan 2025 Effects of a food supplement containing phosphatidylserine on cognitive function in Chinese older adults with mild cognitive impairment: A randomized double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. J Affect Disord · PMID 39317299 · DOI |
Randomised controlled trial |
190 190 Chinese adults with mild cognitive impairment, average age about 68 (95 per group) |
A combination capsule: alpha-linolenic acid, phosphatidylserine, ginkgo flavonoids, vitamins B1 and B6 and folic acid Capsule Two capsules a day; each held 144 mg ALA, 31.5 mg PS and 3.6 mg ginkgo total flavonoids plus B vitamins and folic acid 12 months · vs Identical capsules with no active ingredients |
The group taking the combination scored better on arithmetic, a similarity test and short-term memory. Blood omega-3 levels, acetylcholine, GABA and serotonin also rose. About 20% of the short-term memory gain was statistically linked to the rise in blood ALA. Short-term memory beta 0.600; similarity beta 1.070; arithmetic beta 0.688 (Short-term memory 0.399 to 0.800; similarity 0.472 to 1.667; arithmetic 0.103 to 1.274) Methods, limits and fundingOutcomes: Cognitive tests, blood omega-3 levels, neurotransmitters Limitations: A mix of ingredients, so the result cannot be credited to PS alone; the mediation analysis points more to ALA than PS. Funding and conflicts: No funding or conflict named in the abstract. Read: abstract |
| Glade 2015 Phosphatidylserine and the human brain. Nutrition · PMID 25933483 · DOI |
Narrative review |
Literature review of 127 articles on PS and the human brain | Phosphatidylserine (dietary and supplement) Supplement Review states 300 to 800 mg a day was studied |
The authors conclude PS is required for healthy nerve-cell membranes, is absorbed efficiently, crosses the blood-brain barrier, and supports a long list of thinking and memory functions. This is much more positive than the controlled trials above support. No numbers (Not applicable) Methods, limits and fundingOutcomes: Brain biochemistry and cognitive function Limitations: A narrative review rather than a systematic one; its conclusions go further than the null and mixed trials; read from the abstract only; authorship and funding links not stated in the abstract. Funding and conflicts: Funding and conflicts not stated in the abstract. Read: abstract |
| Hellhammer 2012 Omega-3 fatty acids administered in phosphatidylserine improved certain aspects of high chronic stress in men. Nutr Res · PMID 22575036 · DOI |
Randomised controlled trial |
60 60 healthy non-smoking men aged 30 to 60 |
Phosphatidylserine with omega-3 fatty acids (omega-3 PS) Supplement 12 weeks · vs Matching placebo |
No significant main effect on stress measures in the whole group. Among men with high chronic stress, stress was lower and a blunted cortisol response to the stress test was restored. No overall effect; benefit only in the high-stress subgroup (Not given) Methods, limits and fundingOutcomes: Perceived chronic stress (TICS questionnaire); stress and cortisol response to a lab stress test Limitations: Subgroup finding after no overall effect; omega-3 PS blend, not PS alone; men only. Funding and conflicts: No funding or conflict named in the abstract. Read: abstract |
| Hersant 2023 Over the Counter Supplements for Memory: A Review of Available Evidence. CNS Drugs · PMID 37603263 · DOI |
Narrative review |
Review of the 18 most common ingredients in 103 memory supplements sold in US pharmacies and grocery stores | Many ingredients including phosphatidylserine Supplements |
The review puts phosphatidylserine among ingredients with some evidence of memory benefit (with choline, curcumin, ashwagandha and others), says more rigorous long-term studies in uniform groups are needed, and says healthcare providers should ask older patients about supplements and their side effects and drug interactions. No numbers for PS in the abstract (Not applicable) Methods, limits and fundingOutcomes: Memory Limitations: A narrative review; 'some evidence' is not proof; read from the abstract only. Funding and conflicts: No funding or conflict named in the abstract. Read: abstract |
| Hirayama 2014 The effect of phosphatidylserine administration on memory and symptoms of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder: a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled clinical trial. J Hum Nutr Diet · PMID 23495677 · DOI |
Randomised controlled trial |
36 36 children aged 4 to 14 with ADHD who had not had ADHD drug treatment |
Phosphatidylserine Soy-derived supplement 200 mg a day 2 months · vs Placebo (17 children; 19 took phosphatidylserine) |
Children taking phosphatidylserine improved on ADHD symptoms (total, inattention, hyperactivity-impulsivity; all P<0.01) and short-term auditory memory (P<0.05). Some attention-test measures also improved (P<0.05). The authors report no adverse effects. P-values only in the abstract; no effect sizes given (Not given) Methods, limits and fundingOutcomes: ADHD symptoms (DSM-IV-TR), short-term auditory memory, attention tests Limitations: Small trial (36 children), 2 months only. Did not report separate numbers beyond P-values in the abstract. Funding and conflicts: Funding and conflicts not stated in the abstract. Read: abstract |
| Hussain 2024 Phosphatidylserine: A comprehensive overview of synthesis, metabolism, and nutrition. Chem Phys Lipids · PMID 39097133 · DOI |
Narrative review |
Review of how phosphatidylserine is made, where it occurs in nature, what it does in cells and how it is used in foods and supplements | Phosphatidylserine Foods and supplements |
PS is a main negatively charged membrane fat, most abundant in the inner layer of nerve-cell membranes. The body makes it from phosphatidylcholine or phosphatidylethanolamine using two enzymes in the endoplasmic reticulum. PS on the outer surface of a cell is needed to clear dying cells and to start blood clotting. The review says supplementation results for some memory functions remain unclear and that clinical studies show PS is safe and well tolerated. No numbers (Not applicable) Methods, limits and fundingOutcomes: Biochemistry, brain roles, supplementation, safety Limitations: A narrative review; read from the abstract only. Funding and conflicts: Funding noted in PubMed as non-US government support; no conflict named in the abstract. Read: abstract |
| Jorissen 2001 The influence of soy-derived phosphatidylserine on cognition in age-associated memory impairment. Nutr Neurosci · PMID 11842880 · DOI |
Randomised controlled trial |
120 120 older adults (over 57) with age-associated memory impairment |
Phosphatidylserine Soybean-derived supplement 300 mg or 600 mg a day 12 weeks (plus 3-week wash-out) · vs Placebo |
No significant differences between placebo, 300 mg and 600 mg groups on any outcome. The authors conclude soy PS did not affect memory or other thinking skills in older people with memory complaints. No significant differences (Not given) Methods, limits and fundingOutcomes: Delayed recall and recognition of a learned word list (primary); other memory, reaction time and attention tests Limitations: Three groups of about 40; 12 weeks; soy PS only. Funding and conflicts: No funding or conflict named in the abstract. Read: abstract |
| Jorissen 2002 Safety of soy-derived phosphatidylserine in elderly people. Nutr Neurosci · PMID 12385596 · DOI |
Controlled clinical trial |
120 120 older adults with age-associated memory impairment |
Phosphatidylserine Soy-derived supplement 300 mg or 600 mg a day 12 weeks · vs Placebo |
No significant differences between groups in any safety measure. The authors conclude soy PS is a safe supplement for older people up to 200 mg three times a day. No significant differences (Not given) Methods, limits and fundingOutcomes: Blood chemistry and blood counts, blood pressure, heart rate, adverse events Limitations: 12 weeks only; older adults only. Funding and conflicts: No funding or conflict named in the abstract. Read: abstract |
| Kato-Kataoka 2010 Soybean-derived phosphatidylserine improves memory function of the elderly Japanese subjects with memory complaints. J Clin Biochem Nutr · PMID 21103034 · DOI |
Randomised controlled trial |
78 78 Japanese adults aged 50 to 69 with memory complaints |
Phosphatidylserine Soybean-derived supplement 100 mg or 300 mg a day 6 months · vs Placebo |
Test scores rose in all groups, including placebo. Among people with lower scores at the start, memory scores rose from baseline in the PS groups but not in the placebo group, mainly delayed verbal recall. No side effects were observed. Group-level differences not significant; subgroup change from baseline in PS groups (Not given in the abstract) Methods, limits and fundingOutcomes: Neuropsychological test scores, blood markers, vital signs Limitations: The benefit was seen in a subgroup and compared with the person's own baseline; the placebo group improved on tests overall. Funding and conflicts: Funding and conflicts not stated in the abstract. Read: abstract |
| Kingsley 2006 Effects of phosphatidylserine on exercise capacity during cycling in active males. Med Sci Sports Exerc · PMID 16394955 · DOI |
Randomised controlled trial |
14 14 active men |
Phosphatidylserine Soybean-derived supplement 750 mg a day 10 days · vs Placebo |
Time to exhaustion rose from 7:51 to 9:51 minutes with PS and stayed about 8:09 to 8:02 with placebo. PS did not change oxygen kinetics, cortisol, substrate use or feeling states. Time to exhaustion about 2 minutes longer with PS (P=0.005 for the group effect) Methods, limits and fundingOutcomes: Time to exhaustion at 85% of maximum oxygen uptake; oxygen kinetics; cortisol; feeling states Limitations: Only 14 men; one short protocol; the authors call it 'potential' ergogenic effect. Funding and conflicts: No funding or conflict named in the abstract. Read: abstract |
| Kingsley 2006 Phosphatidylserine supplementation and recovery following downhill running. Med Sci Sports Exerc · PMID 16960523 · DOI |
Randomised controlled trial |
8 8 recreationally active men |
Phosphatidylserine Soybean-derived supplement 750 mg a day 7 days before and 2 days after a downhill run · vs Glucose polymer placebo (crossover) |
Downhill running raised soreness, creatine kinase, myoglobin, IL-6 and lipid hydroperoxides. PS did not significantly reduce any of these. No significant effect (Not given) Methods, limits and fundingOutcomes: Muscle soreness and blood markers of damage, inflammation and oxidative stress Limitations: Only 8 men; short. Funding and conflicts: No funding or conflict named in the abstract. Read: abstract |
| Kucuksahin 2026 The Impact of Citicoline/Phosphatidylserine Supplementation on Cognitive Performance and Executive Functions in Mental Disorders: A Systematic Review of Controlled Trials. Hum Psychopharmacol · PMID 42538853 · DOI |
Systematic review |
11 controlled studies (10 randomised): 5 in children with ADHD; the rest in adults with mood disorders, alcohol and substance use disorders and schizophrenia | Citicoline and phosphatidylserine (alone or added to usual treatment) Supplements Varied Varied · vs Placebo or usual treatment |
Results were mixed and inconsistent. In ADHD, PS-containing products improved attention and impulsivity in three studies; two found no difference. One schizophrenia study found better verbal free recall but no global gain. Mood and substance-use studies were mixed. The authors conclude the evidence does not support these products as cognitive enhancers and call them adjunctive or investigational. No pooled numbers (Not applicable) Methods, limits and fundingOutcomes: Cognitive performance and executive function Limitations: High risk of bias in the included studies; citicoline and PS results are combined in the review title, so PS-only findings are a small part. Funding and conflicts: No funding or conflict named in the abstract. Read: abstract |
| Li 2026 The impact of supplements on cognitive function for Alzheimer's disease or mild cognitive impairment: a systematic review and network meta-analysis. Nutr Neurosci · PMID 42494057 · DOI |
Network meta analysis |
2000 29 randomised trials, about 2,000 people with Alzheimer's disease or mild cognitive impairment, many supplements compared |
Many supplements, including phosphatidylserine 100 mg Supplements PS 100 mg group listed (trial amount) Varied · vs Placebo |
Several supplements, including phosphatidylserine 100 mg, were linked to better MMSE scores than placebo. No supplement improved ADAS-Cog, the other main test. The abstract prints the PS mean difference as negative (sign convention unclear). PS 100 mg versus placebo on MMSE: mean difference -1.14 as printed (95% CI -1.86 to -0.41) Methods, limits and fundingOutcomes: Mini-Mental State Examination (MMSE) and ADAS-Cog scores Limitations: Network meta-analysis mixes very different trials; a single dose group; the direction sign in the abstract is unclear; no effect on ADAS-Cog. Funding and conflicts: No funding or conflict named in the abstract. Read: abstract |
| Manor 2012 The effect of phosphatidylserine containing Omega3 fatty-acids on attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder symptoms in children: a double-blind placebo-controlled trial, followed by an open-label extension. Eur Psychiatry · PMID 21807480 · DOI |
Randomised controlled trial |
200 200 children with ADHD; 150 continued into the open-label extension |
Phosphatidylserine with omega-3 fatty acids attached (PS-Omega3) Branded supplement 15 weeks double-blind, then 15 weeks open-label · vs Placebo |
In the double-blind phase there was a significant fall on one parent-rated subscale (Global: Restless/impulsive) and a better parent-impact emotional score. Subgroup results (more hyperactive, emotionally dysregulated children) were exploratory. The treatment was well tolerated. Significant on one parent-rated subscale; numbers not given in the abstract (Not given) Methods, limits and fundingOutcomes: Conners' parent and teacher ratings, Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire, Child Health Questionnaire Limitations: Only a couple of scales changed out of many; subgroup analysis was exploratory; the product combines PS with omega-3, so the result cannot be credited to PS alone. Funding and conflicts: Funding and conflicts not stated in the abstract. A specific PS-omega-3 product was tested; results may not apply to other products. Read: abstract |
| Manor 2013 Safety of phosphatidylserine containing omega3 fatty acids in ADHD children: a double-blind placebo-controlled trial followed by an open-label extension. Eur Psychiatry · PMID 23312676 · DOI |
Randomised controlled trial |
200 200 children with ADHD; 150 continued into the extension |
Phosphatidylserine with omega-3 fatty acids (PS-Omega3) Supplement 300 mg a day for 15 weeks, then 150 mg a day for 15 weeks 30 weeks · vs Placebo (first 15 weeks) |
No significant differences between groups in any safety measure. After 30 weeks there were no significant changes from baseline, including body weight or growth. The authors call it safe and well tolerated. No significant safety differences (Not given) Methods, limits and fundingOutcomes: Blood chemistry and blood counts, blood pressure, heart rate, weight and height, adverse events Limitations: One product (PS-Omega3); 30 weeks. Funding and conflicts: Funding not stated in the abstract. Read: abstract |
| McDaniel 2003 "Brain-specific" nutrients: a memory cure? Nutrition · PMID 14624946 · DOI |
Narrative review |
Review of double-blind placebo-controlled studies of PS, phosphatidylcholine, citicoline, piracetam and others in older adults | Phosphatidylserine and other widely sold memory compounds Supplements · vs Placebo |
In animals PS reduced several effects of ageing on nerve cells. In people the findings were limited: one study in probable Alzheimer's disease found no benefit; in older adults with moderate impairment PS gave consistently modest gains in word-list recall, but not as consistently on other tests; one report found benefit in a subgroup of normal adults who did worse than peers at baseline. No numbers (Not applicable) Methods, limits and fundingOutcomes: Memory performance Limitations: Old review (2003) of older trials; read from the abstract only. Funding and conflicts: No funding or conflict named in the abstract. Read: abstract |
| McMillan 2026 Beneficial vascular effects of oral phosphatidylserine supplementation in type 2 diabetes. J Appl Physiol (1985) · PMID 42312814 · DOI |
Randomised controlled trial and lab |
Lab experiments, diabetic mice, and a randomised trial in adults with type 2 diabetes (number of people not in the abstract) | Phosphatidylserine Oral supplement 900 mg a day of a product that delivered about 280 mg a day of PS 4 weeks · vs Placebo |
In people with type 2 diabetes, PS increased leg blood flow after a glucose drink and lowered a measure of aortic stiffness that rose with the glucose load. In mice and cells, PS blocked an enzyme (ADAM17) and reduced oxidative stress. Improved blood-flow response and pulse wave velocity; numbers not in the abstract (Not given) Methods, limits and fundingOutcomes: Leg blood flow after an oral glucose load; aortic pulse wave velocity (artery stiffness) Limitations: Very early work; small, short human trial; vascular measures, not heart attacks or diabetes control. Funding and conflicts: Funding includes a US NIH extramural grant and a Brazilian research foundation; no industry funding named in the abstract. Read: abstract |
| Mizera 2026 Football-Specific Performance and Cognitive Fatigue Resistance Following Supplementation with Two Phosphatidylserine Doses Combined with Taurine and Caffeine in Professional Male Football Players: A Randomized, Triple-Masked, Placebo-Controlled Trial. Nutrients · PMID 42654170 · DOI |
Randomised controlled trial |
97 97 professional male football players in four groups (about 24 each) |
Phosphatidylserine combined with taurine and caffeine Supplement PS 300 or 600 mg a day with taurine 1,500 mg and caffeine 200 mg 14 days · vs Placebo, or taurine plus caffeine without PS |
The groups differed on sprint time, Stroop reaction time, visual reaction time and perceived mental fatigue, and the PS groups generally looked more favourable. The authors say the data do not show an improvement in fatigue resistance, and differences between the two PS amounts were modest. Group effects on several tests; numbers not in the abstract (Not given) Methods, limits and fundingOutcomes: 30 m sprint time, reaction time, Stroop test, perceived mental fatigue, GPS-tracked movement in a football test Limitations: Multi-ingredient (taurine and caffeine are given in all active groups), so PS alone is hard to separate; professional male players only. Funding and conflicts: No funding or conflict named in the abstract. Read: abstract |
| More 2014 Positive effects of soy lecithin-derived phosphatidylserine plus phosphatidic acid on memory, cognition, daily functioning, and mood in elderly patients with Alzheimer's disease and dementia. Adv Ther · PMID 25414047 · DOI |
Randomised controlled trial |
Pilot studies: healthy volunteers (single dose); 57 older people with memory problems (31 vs 26 per protocol, 3 months); 92 people with Alzheimer's disease (53 vs 39 per protocol, 2 months) | Phosphatidylserine plus phosphatidic acid (a proprietary blend from soy lecithin) Capsules Three capsules a day: 300 mg PS and 240 mg phosphatidic acid 2 to 3 months · vs Placebo |
Blood PS peaked 90 minutes after one dose and returned to baseline by 180 minutes. In older people with memory problems, memory improved before versus after in the PS group but not placebo ('winter blues' also prevented). In Alzheimer's disease, daily functioning stayed the same with the blend but fell from 5.62 to 4.90 with placebo (group difference P=0.021). Deterioration was 3.8% versus 17.9% (P=0.066, not significant); 'improved general condition' 49% versus 26.3% (P=0.084, not significant). No negative side effects were observed. Daily functioning: group difference P=0.021 (Not given) Methods, limits and fundingOutcomes: Memory, mood, daily functioning, general condition Limitations: Previously unpublished early pilot studies of a proprietary blend; small, short; several outcomes not significant; blend includes phosphatidic acid, so PS alone is not tested. Funding and conflicts: The abstract says a proprietary blend in a brain-health food supplement was tested; funding is not stated. Read: abstract |
| Rheims 2024 Phosphatidylserine enriched with polyunsaturated n-3 fatty acid supplementation for attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder in children and adolescents with epilepsy: A randomized placebo-controlled trial. Epilepsia Open · PMID 38173190 · DOI |
Randomised controlled trial |
74 74 children and adolescents aged 6 to 16 with epilepsy and ADHD (44 PS-Omega3, 30 placebo) |
Phosphatidylserine enriched with omega-3 (PS-Omega3) Supplement 12 weeks double-blind, then 12 weeks open-label · vs Placebo |
No difference from placebo. The study stopped early because too few children could be enrolled, so it is underpowered, but the authors say the data strongly suggest this formulation did not improve ADHD symptoms in children with epilepsy. Inattention score change -1.57 (PS-Omega3) versus -2.90 (placebo) (p=0.33) Methods, limits and fundingOutcomes: ADHD Rating Scale IV inattention sub-score Limitations: Stopped early; underpowered; a PS-omega-3 blend, not PS alone; children with epilepsy only. Funding and conflicts: Funded by the French Ministry of Health (national hospital research programme). Read: abstract |
| Schmidt 2018 A lecithin phosphatidylserine and phosphatidic acid complex (PAS) reduces symptoms of the premenstrual syndrome (PMS): Results of a randomized, placebo-controlled, double-blind clinical trial. Clin Nutr ESPEN · PMID 29576358 · DOI |
Randomised controlled trial |
40 40 women aged 18 to 45 with premenstrual syndrome |
A phosphatidylserine plus phosphatidic acid complex (PAS) Supplement made by a named manufacturer 400 mg PS and 400 mg phosphatidic acid a day 3 cycles after 1 baseline cycle · vs Matching placebo |
The total DRSP score improved more with the complex than placebo, as did physical symptoms. Depressive symptoms, lost productivity and relationship interference were not significantly better. The number of women still meeting PMS or PMDD criteria did not differ. Some cortisol measures differed. DRSP total score p=0.001; physical p=0.002; depressive symptoms p=0.068 (Not given) Methods, limits and fundingOutcomes: Daily Record of Severity of Problems (DRSP) total score; cortisol and sex hormones Limitations: Small trial (40 women); a PS plus phosphatidic acid product, not PS alone; the abstract describes a named manufacturer's product, so the product maker may have an interest. Funding and conflicts: Product maker is named in the abstract; funding not stated. Read: abstract |
| US Food and Drug Administration 2024 Qualified Health Claims: Letters of Enforcement Discretion (FDA listing page) FDA website · Source |
Regulator statement |
Not applicable | Phosphatidylserine |
The listing page (content current as of 2024-03-28) names three phosphatidylserine letters: 'Phosphatidylserine and Cognitive Dysfunction and Dementia' (February 24, 2003 and May 13, 2003) and a letter updating that claim (November 24, 2004). The letters themselves are archived and could not be opened, so their wording was not read. Not applicable (Not applicable) Methods, limits and fundingOutcomes: Which qualified health claims the FDA has allowed Limitations: Only the listing was read; the letter texts were not. Funding and conflicts: Not applicable Read: listing page only |
| Vakhapova 2010 Phosphatidylserine containing omega-3 fatty acids may improve memory abilities in non-demented elderly with memory complaints: a double-blind placebo-controlled trial. Dement Geriatr Cogn Disord · PMID 20523044 · DOI |
Randomised controlled trial |
157 157 older adults without dementia who had memory complaints (131 completed) |
Phosphatidylserine with DHA attached (PS-DHA) Marine-sourced PS-DHA supplement 300 mg of PS a day (per the companion safety paper) 15 weeks · vs Placebo |
Immediate verbal recall was better with PS-DHA than placebo. Post-hoc subgroup analysis found gains in people with better baseline scores. The authors call the results exploratory and say they need confirming. Significant improvement in immediate verbal recall; numbers not in the abstract (Not given) Methods, limits and fundingOutcomes: Verbal learning and memory tests, figure copy test, computerised cognitive tests Limitations: Post-hoc subgroup finding; PS-DHA is a specific marine product, not soy PS; 9 people were left out of the efficacy analysis for protocol violations. Funding and conflicts: Funding and conflicts not stated in the abstract. A specific branded PS-DHA formulation was tested. Read: abstract |
| Vakhapova 2011 Safety of phosphatidylserine containing omega-3 fatty acids in non-demented elderly: a double-blind placebo-controlled trial followed by an open-label extension. BMC Neurol · PMID 21711517 · DOI |
Randomised controlled trial |
157 157 older adults without dementia who had memory complaints; 122 continued into an open-label extension |
Phosphatidylserine with DHA attached (PS-DHA) Marine-sourced supplement 300 mg of PS a day for 15 weeks, then 100 mg a day for 15 weeks 30 weeks in total · vs Placebo (first 15 weeks) |
No significant differences between groups in safety measures. After 30 weeks there was a drop in resting diastolic blood pressure and a slight weight gain. The adverse-event table in the full paper lists stomach or gut discomfort most often. The paper's introduction notes that cattle-brain PS was replaced by other sources because of concern about contamination with BSE (mad cow disease) prions. No significant safety differences (Not given) Methods, limits and fundingOutcomes: Blood chemistry and blood counts, blood pressure, heart rate, adverse events Limitations: One product (PS-DHA); about 30 weeks; no control group in the extension. Funding and conflicts: Funding not stated in the abstract; a specific branded PS-DHA formulation was tested. Read: abstract and open-access full text |
| Wells 2013 Phosphatidylserine and caffeine attenuate postexercise mood disturbance and perception of fatigue in humans. Nutr Res · PMID 23746562 · DOI |
Randomised controlled trial |
Recreationally trained people doing two resistance-exercise sessions two weeks apart | Phosphatidylserine plus caffeine (a multi-ingredient supplement) Supplement 400 mg PS and 100 mg caffeine a day 2 weeks · vs Control |
The supplement reduced the rise in post-exercise mood disturbance and perceived fatigue. It did not change thinking performance or reaction time. Smaller rise in fatigue and mood-disturbance scores; numbers not in the abstract (Not given) Methods, limits and fundingOutcomes: Thinking tests, reaction time, mood and perceived fatigue after exercise Limitations: PS and caffeine were given together, so PS alone is not tested; number of participants not in the abstract. Funding and conflicts: No funding or conflict named in the abstract. Read: abstract |
What we do not know yet
- No large, long trial of soy PS alone showed a clear memory benefit; the largest was null.
- Most positive results come from subgroups, blends or small pilots.
- No drug-interaction study for PS was found.
- Safety beyond about 6 months, and in pregnancy or breastfeeding, was not found.
- The FDA letters could not be opened and EFSA could not be reached, so regulator wording is not stated.
- No source gave amounts of PS in foods.
How new research is added
New studies are found by a saved PubMed search and placed in a review queue before the page changes.
Lab markers
What changed in blood or saliva tests during trials. A changed number is not the same as feeling or being healthier, and we give no "normal ranges".
Other 6
Mini-Mental State Examination (MMSE) score
Better in one pooled analysis (uncertain) in trials
A 30-point screening test for memory and thinking. Higher is better.
Not enough evidenceResults and what it means
Why it was measured
To see whether a supplement changes a common thinking test in people with Alzheimer's disease or mild cognitive impairment.
Statistical vs. clinical meaning
A small signal on one test and none on the other; the direction is not clear from the abstract.
Safety implication
None specific.
| Study | Result | People | Product |
|---|---|---|---|
| 14 | PS 100 mg versus placebo: mean difference -1.14 (95% CI -1.86 to -0.41) as printed; sign convention unclear. No supplement improved ADAS-Cog. | 29 trials, about 2,000 people with Alzheimer's disease or mild cognitive impairment | Many supplements; PS 100 mg a group |
Inattention score (ADHD ratings)
Lower in meta-analysis (low certainty) in trials
How strongly adults rate a child's inattention, such as trouble staying on a task.
Low certaintyResults and what it means
Why it was measured
To see whether PS changes attention problems in children with ADHD.
Statistical vs. clinical meaning
A small improvement in rating scales in some trials, absent in others; ratings are not the same as school or life outcomes.
Safety implication
Trials reported PS was well tolerated.
| Study | Result | People | Product |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | Effect size 0.36 (95% CI 0.07 to 0.64) for inattention, p=0.01 | 3 randomised trials, 216 children with ADHD | Phosphatidylserine versus placebo |
| 21 | Change in inattention score -1.57 (PS-omega-3) against -2.90 (placebo), p=0.33 | 74 children with epilepsy and ADHD | PS-omega-3 versus placebo for 12 weeks |
Delayed verbal recall (word-list memory)
Higher in some trials, unchanged in another in trials
How many words from a list a person remembers after a delay.
Mixed findingsResults and what it means
Why it was measured
To see whether PS changes the kind of memory that weakens early in dementia.
Statistical vs. clinical meaning
Positive in subgroups and in one DHA-bound product, null in a larger soy-PS trial.
Safety implication
None specific.
| Study | Result | People | Product |
|---|---|---|---|
| 10 | Gain from baseline in PS groups among adults with lower starting scores; placebo unchanged | 78 Japanese adults with memory complaints | Soy PS for 6 months |
| 24 | Immediate verbal recall better with PS-DHA than placebo | 157 older adults with memory complaints | PS bound to DHA for 15 weeks |
| 8 | No difference between placebo and soy PS on delayed recall | 120 older adults with age-associated memory impairment | Soy PS for 12 weeks |
Cortisol response to stress
Restored in a high-stress subgroup in trials
Cortisol is the main stress hormone. The response is how much it rises during a stress test.
Very low certaintyResults and what it means
Why it was measured
To see whether PS changes how the body reacts to stress.
Statistical vs. clinical meaning
One small trial, subgroup only.
Safety implication
None specific.
| Study | Result | People | Product |
|---|---|---|---|
| 4 | Blunted cortisol response restored in high chronically stressed men; no overall main effect | 60 healthy men aged 30 to 60 | Omega-3 PS for 12 weeks |
Time to exhaustion at 85% of maximum effort
Longer in one small trial in trials
How long a person can keep going at a hard cycling intensity.
Very low certaintyResults and what it means
Why it was measured
To see whether PS lengthens hard exercise.
Statistical vs. clinical meaning
One tiny trial; the same group found no benefit for soreness.
Safety implication
None specific.
| Study | Result | People | Product |
|---|---|---|---|
| 11 | 7:51 to 9:51 minutes with PS; placebo 8:09 to 8:02 (group effect P=0.005) | 14 active men | Soy PS for 10 days |
Aortic pulse wave velocity
Lower after PS (very early) in trials
How fast the pressure wave travels along the aorta; higher means stiffer arteries.
Very low certaintyResults and what it means
Why it was measured
To see whether PS changes artery stiffness in type 2 diabetes.
Statistical vs. clinical meaning
A surrogate marker, not a health outcome.
Safety implication
People with diabetes: ask a doctor before adding supplements.
| Study | Result | People | Product |
|---|---|---|---|
| 18 | Reduced glucose-load-related aortic pulse wave velocity; numbers not in the abstract | Adults with type 2 diabetes | Oral PS product for 4 weeks |
Safety
What studies and official sources say about side effects, medicines and who should check first. Each point shows what kind of evidence it comes from.
Main points to know 3
- Trials report PS was well tolerated, but they are short and mostly in older adults. Safety trials of 12 to 30 weeks in older adults (soy PS up to 600 mg a day; PS bound to DHA) and in children with ADHD (PS bound to omega-3, 30 weeks) found no significant differences from placebo in blood tests, blood pressure, heart rate, weight or growth. A 2024 review says clinical studies show PS is safe and well tolerated. Long-term safety beyond about 6 months was not found. Randomised safety trials and review 9 25 16 7
- No drug-interaction studies were found. No source read tested PS with prescription medicines. PS takes part in blood clotting as a normal cell fat, but no source read shows that supplements change bleeding. A 2023 review still advises clinicians to ask older patients about supplements and watch for side effects and drug interactions. Ask a pharmacist, especially if you take blood thinners or memory or ADHD medicines. Gap in evidence and review advice 5 7
- The source of PS and the rest of the product matter. Early PS came from cattle brain. A safety paper says concern about BSE (mad cow disease) prions led to alternatives such as soy PS. Many studied products also contain omega-3, ginkgo, caffeine, taurine, phosphatidic acid or B vitamins, so their safety is not PS alone. Soy-derived products are a point to check if you have a soy allergy. Trial introduction and product knowledge 25 2 19
Side effects 3
| Effect | How often | Severity and recovery | Evidence |
|---|---|---|---|
| Stomach or gut discomfort Counts per group could not be read reliably from the full-text table, so no rates are given. | The adverse-event table of a 30-week trial of PS bound to DHA lists gut discomfort most often. No significant difference in safety measures was found against placebo. | Not described in the sources read. Not described. | Randomised trial 25 |
| No significant change in blood tests or vital signs After 30 weeks of PS-DHA there was a fall in resting diastolic blood pressure and a slight weight gain in the older-adult trial. | None significant versus placebo in 120 older adults taking soy PS 300 or 600 mg a day for 12 weeks; in 157 older adults on PS-DHA; and in 200 children on PS-omega-3 for up to 30 weeks. | Not applicable Not applicable | Randomised trials 9 25 16 |
| No side effects reported in some small efficacy trials These trials were not designed mainly to measure safety. | No adverse effects were reported in a 2-month trial of soy PS in 36 children, a 6-month trial in 78 older Japanese adults, and a pilot of a PS plus phosphatidic acid blend in people with Alzheimer's disease. | Not applicable Not applicable | Small randomised trials 6 10 20 |
Liver
No liver injury linked to phosphatidylserine was found in the sources read. The safety trials checked blood chemistry (including liver enzymes in the PS-DHA trial protocol) and found no significant differences from placebo. A dedicated liver-safety reference (LiverTox) was not opened for this page. 25 9
How often. No frequency was found.
Monitoring. No agency monitoring advice was found.
This is a safety connection. It is not evidence that Phosphatidylserine supports liver health.
Medicines and supplements 4
| With | Why it matters | Importance | Evidence | What to do |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Blood thinners and antiplatelet medicines (warfarin, aspirin, clopidogrel and others) prescription | Theoretical only: PS on cell surfaces takes part in blood clotting (2024 review). No source read shows a supplement changes bleeding risk. | Unknown. No trial or case report was found. | Theoretical Very low certainty 7 | Ask a pharmacist before combining. |
| Memory and dementia medicines (donepezil, rivastigmine, memantine) prescription | No interaction study was found. A trial of a PS-containing capsule reported higher blood acetylcholine, which is a different measure from a drug interaction. | Unknown. | None found Very low certainty 2 5 | Tell the prescriber and pharmacist about any supplement. |
| ADHD medicines (methylphenidate and others) prescription | No interaction study was found. | Unknown. | None found Very low certainty 13 | Do not stop or swap prescribed ADHD treatment for a supplement. Ask the child's doctor. |
| Caffeine, taurine, ginkgo, omega-3 and other ingredients in the same product supplement | Several trials used PS in blends, so side effects belong to the whole blend. | Read the full ingredient list; caffeine, ginkgo and omega-3 each have their own cautions. | Trial design Low certainty 2 19 26 | Ask a pharmacist, especially if you take blood thinners. |
Who should check first 5
| Situation | Advice | Evidence |
|---|---|---|
| Pregnancy and breastfeeding | No source read studied PS supplements in pregnancy or breastfeeding. Because safety is unknown, ask a doctor or midwife before use. | Gap in evidence |
| Children | Children aged 4 to 16 took PS or PS-omega-3 in ADHD trials of 2 to 30 weeks without significant safety differences from placebo. These were supervised trials. Do not give a child a supplement without a doctor's advice. | Randomised trials 6 16 21 |
| Older adults | Most safety trials were in older adults (up to 600 mg a day of soy PS for 12 weeks). A 2023 review asks clinicians to review older patients' supplements and medicines. | Randomised trials and review 9 25 5 |
| Soy allergy | Many PS supplements are made from soy. No source read reports allergic reactions to PS, but people with a soy allergy should check labels and ask a pharmacist. | Label knowledge; no study found 8 6 |
| Kidney, liver disease or bleeding disorders | No source read studied PS in kidney disease, liver disease or bleeding disorders. Ask a doctor. | Gap in evidence |
Overdose, product quality and regulators
Summary. No toxic effects were found in the human trials read, and PS is a normal body fat. Trials last at most about 6 months. The risks that are known concern the product, not the molecule: the old cattle-brain source and blends with other ingredients.
Animal. Not reviewed.
High dose or long term signals. No signal was found. A 30-week trial of PS-DHA found a fall in diastolic blood pressure and slight weight gain, which the authors did not link to harm.
Overdose response. No overdose reports were found.
Genotoxicity. Not researched.
Label accuracy and contaminants in PS products were not tested in any source read. The source of the PS is the main quality question.
Cattle-brain PS and BSE. A 2011 safety paper says concern about contamination with BSE prions led to alternatives such as soy PS. 25
Soy versus cattle-brain PS. The same paper notes soy PS has a different fatty acid make-up from brain PS. Whether they act alike is not settled in the sources read. The FDA listing names a 2004 letter on this claim, but the letter text could not be opened. 25 23
Blends. Products that mix PS with omega-3, caffeine, taurine or phosphatidic acid are common in trials. Their risks are those of the whole blend. 2 19 22
| Body | Action | Date |
|---|---|---|
| US Food and Drug Administration (qualified health claims listing) (United States) | The FDA's listing of qualified health claim letters includes three phosphatidylserine letters: 'Phosphatidylserine and Cognitive Dysfunction and Dementia' (February 24, 2003 and May 13, 2003) and a letter updating that claim (November 24, 2004). The wording of the letters, including any required label statement, was not read. source | 2024-03-28 |
When to get medical help
- Signs of an allergic reaction after taking a product: hives, swelling of the lips or face, trouble breathing.
- Unusual bleeding or large bruises, especially if you take blood thinners.
- Severe or lasting stomach pain or vomiting.
- Sudden confusion, trouble speaking or weakness on one side of the body (call emergency services; this is not a supplement problem to wait on).
- Memory that is getting worse: see a doctor rather than trying supplements first.
Stop using the product and contact a clinician or emergency service. In the US, Poison Control is 1-800-222-1222.
General information only, not medical advice. Ask a clinician or pharmacist before use, especially with medicines, in pregnancy or with a health condition. See the Natural Remedy Safety guide.
Frequently asked questions
What is phosphatidylserine?
A fat found in cell membranes, most of all in nerve cells. The body makes it. Supplements are sold for memory and focus.
Does phosphatidylserine improve memory?
Does it help Alzheimer's disease or dementia?
Does it help ADHD?
Does it lower stress or cortisol?
In one trial of 60 healthy men, PS with omega-3 had no overall effect, but men with high chronic stress had lower stress and a restored cortisol response. That is one small subgroup result.
Does it help sports performance?
Is phosphatidylserine safe?
Does it interact with medicines?
Does the source matter: soy, cattle brain or marine?
Is it the same as choline or citicoline?
Should people with a soy allergy worry?
What has the FDA said about it?
The FDA's listing of qualified health claim letters includes three phosphatidylserine letters from 2003 and 2004 on cognitive dysfunction and dementia. We could not open the letters, so we do not state their wording.
Explore by health goal
Memory SupportBrain HealthBetter FocusStress ReductionPeak PerformanceMuscle RecoveryWomens WellnessHealthy CirculationBlood Sugar BalanceMental Clarity
Editorial transparency
- Written by
- AlternativeMed editorial team. Research compiled with AI assistance, then checked against the sources listed.
- Medical review
- None. This page has not been reviewed by a physician or pharmacist.
- First published
- 2026-10-26
- Last substantive update
- 2026-10-26
- How we research
- We started from our existing phosphatidylserine summary, then searched PubMed and re-read abstracts for reviews and trials, read the open-access full text of one safety paper, and read the FDA qualified health claims listing. Only abstracts were read for most studies. The FDA letters and the EFSA site could not be opened.
- How we rate evidence
- See "How we rate evidence" in the Evidence tab.
- Independence
- No product is promoted on this page. No affiliate links are shown. Trials of PS products may have manufacturer links not stated in abstracts.
Sources 26
Each source was opened and checked. Where we read only the abstract, it says so. The small numbers in the text point here.
- Bruton A, Nauman J, Hanes D et al.. Phosphatidylserine for the Treatment of Pediatric Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis.. J Altern Complement Med. 2021. PMID 33539192. DOI 10.1089/acm.2020.0432. (abstract)
- Duan H, Xu N, Yang T et al.. Effects of a food supplement containing phosphatidylserine on cognitive function in Chinese older adults with mild cognitive impairment: A randomized double-blind, placebo-controlled trial.. J Affect Disord. 2025. PMID 39317299. DOI 10.1016/j.jad.2024.09.131. (abstract)
- Glade MJ, Smith K.. Phosphatidylserine and the human brain.. Nutrition. 2015. PMID 25933483. DOI 10.1016/j.nut.2014.10.014. (abstract)
- Hellhammer J, Hero T, Franz N et al.. Omega-3 fatty acids administered in phosphatidylserine improved certain aspects of high chronic stress in men.. Nutr Res. 2012. PMID 22575036. DOI 10.1016/j.nutres.2012.03.003. (abstract)
- Hersant H, He S, Maliha P et al.. Over the Counter Supplements for Memory: A Review of Available Evidence.. CNS Drugs. 2023. PMID 37603263. DOI 10.1007/s40263-023-01031-6. (abstract)
- Hirayama S, Terasawa K, Rabeler R et al.. The effect of phosphatidylserine administration on memory and symptoms of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder: a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled clinical trial.. J Hum Nutr Diet. 2014. PMID 23495677. DOI 10.1111/jhn.12090. (abstract)
- Hussain M, Khan I, Chaudhary MN et al.. Phosphatidylserine: A comprehensive overview of synthesis, metabolism, and nutrition.. Chem Phys Lipids. 2024. PMID 39097133. DOI 10.1016/j.chemphyslip.2024.105422. (abstract)
- Jorissen BL, Brouns F, Van Boxtel MP et al.. The influence of soy-derived phosphatidylserine on cognition in age-associated memory impairment.. Nutr Neurosci. 2001. PMID 11842880. DOI 10.1080/1028415x.2001.11747356. (abstract)
- Jorissen BL, Brouns F, Van Boxtel MP et al.. Safety of soy-derived phosphatidylserine in elderly people.. Nutr Neurosci. 2002. PMID 12385596. DOI 10.1080/1028415021000033802. (abstract)
- Kato-Kataoka A, Sakai M, Ebina R et al.. Soybean-derived phosphatidylserine improves memory function of the elderly Japanese subjects with memory complaints.. J Clin Biochem Nutr. 2010. PMID 21103034. DOI 10.3164/jcbn.10-62. (abstract)
- Kingsley MI, Miller M, Kilduff LP et al.. Effects of phosphatidylserine on exercise capacity during cycling in active males.. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2006. PMID 16394955. DOI 10.1249/01.mss.0000183195.10867.d0. (abstract)
- Kingsley MI, Kilduff LP, McEneny J et al.. Phosphatidylserine supplementation and recovery following downhill running.. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2006. PMID 16960523. DOI 10.1249/01.mss.0000229459.11452.a0. (abstract)
- Kucuksahin NG, Kaya TT, Halac E et al.. The Impact of Citicoline/Phosphatidylserine Supplementation on Cognitive Performance and Executive Functions in Mental Disorders: A Systematic Review of Controlled Trials.. Hum Psychopharmacol. 2026. PMID 42538853. DOI 10.1002/hup.70058. (abstract)
- Li Y, Leng Q, Wang Y.. The impact of supplements on cognitive function for Alzheimer's disease or mild cognitive impairment: a systematic review and network meta-analysis.. Nutr Neurosci. 2026. PMID 42494057. DOI 10.1080/1028415X.2026.2703619. (abstract)
- Manor I, Magen A, Keidar D et al.. The effect of phosphatidylserine containing Omega3 fatty-acids on attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder symptoms in children: a double-blind placebo-controlled trial, followed by an open-label extension.. Eur Psychiatry. 2012. PMID 21807480. DOI 10.1016/j.eurpsy.2011.05.004. (abstract)
- Manor I, Magen A, Keidar D et al.. Safety of phosphatidylserine containing omega3 fatty acids in ADHD children: a double-blind placebo-controlled trial followed by an open-label extension.. Eur Psychiatry. 2013. PMID 23312676. DOI 10.1016/j.eurpsy.2012.11.001. (abstract)
- McDaniel MA, Maier SF, Einstein GO.. "Brain-specific" nutrients: a memory cure?. Nutrition. 2003. PMID 14624946. DOI 10.1016/s0899-9007(03)00024-8. (abstract)
- McMillan NJ, Augenreich MA, Ramirez-Perez FI et al.. Beneficial vascular effects of oral phosphatidylserine supplementation in type 2 diabetes.. J Appl Physiol (1985). 2026. PMID 42312814. DOI 10.1152/japplphysiol.00281.2026. (abstract)
- Mizera K, Mazurek D, Martinez-Rodriguez A et al.. Football-Specific Performance and Cognitive Fatigue Resistance Following Supplementation with Two Phosphatidylserine Doses Combined with Taurine and Caffeine in Professional Male Football Players: A Randomized, Triple-Masked, Placebo-Controlled Trial.. Nutrients. 2026. PMID 42654170. DOI 10.3390/nu18162588. (abstract)
- More MI, Freitas U, Rutenberg D.. Positive effects of soy lecithin-derived phosphatidylserine plus phosphatidic acid on memory, cognition, daily functioning, and mood in elderly patients with Alzheimer's disease and dementia.. Adv Ther. 2014. PMID 25414047. DOI 10.1007/s12325-014-0165-1. (abstract)
- Rheims S, Herbillon V, Gaillard S et al.. Phosphatidylserine enriched with polyunsaturated n-3 fatty acid supplementation for attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder in children and adolescents with epilepsy: A randomized placebo-controlled trial.. Epilepsia Open. 2024. PMID 38173190. DOI 10.1002/epi4.12892. (abstract)
- Schmidt K, Weber N, Steiner M et al.. A lecithin phosphatidylserine and phosphatidic acid complex (PAS) reduces symptoms of the premenstrual syndrome (PMS): Results of a randomized, placebo-controlled, double-blind clinical trial.. Clin Nutr ESPEN. 2018. PMID 29576358. DOI 10.1016/j.clnesp.2018.01.067. (abstract)
- US Food and Drug Administration. Qualified Health Claims: Letters of Enforcement Discretion (FDA listing page). FDA website. 2024. (listing page only)
- Vakhapova V, Cohen T, Richter Y et al.. Phosphatidylserine containing omega-3 fatty acids may improve memory abilities in non-demented elderly with memory complaints: a double-blind placebo-controlled trial.. Dement Geriatr Cogn Disord. 2010. PMID 20523044. DOI 10.1159/000310330. (abstract)
- Vakhapova V, Richter Y, Cohen T et al.. Safety of phosphatidylserine containing omega-3 fatty acids in non-demented elderly: a double-blind placebo-controlled trial followed by an open-label extension.. BMC Neurol. 2011. PMID 21711517. DOI 10.1186/1471-2377-11-79. (abstract and open-access full text)
- Wells AJ, Hoffman JR, Gonzalez AM et al.. Phosphatidylserine and caffeine attenuate postexercise mood disturbance and perception of fatigue in humans.. Nutr Res. 2013. PMID 23746562. DOI 10.1016/j.nutres.2013.03.009. (abstract)
Where to buy
Check the label first. Whatever you buy, look for these:
- The amount of the active ingredient per serving, not just the front-label claim
- A third-party testing mark (USP, NSF or ConsumerLab)
- Other ingredients and allergens
- Ask a pharmacist about interactions with your medicines
Talk to a pharmacist or doctor before you start any supplement, especially if you take medicines. See the Safety tab for interactions.
Support our free guides: as an Amazon Associate we earn from qualifying purchases. Full disclosure.
