Essential Oils & Aromatherapy · Essential oil
Bergamot Oil
Citrus bergamia Risso & Poit. · also called Bergamot, bergamot orange oil, bergamot peel oil, bergamot essential oil
Bergamot oil is the citrus-scented oil pressed from the peel of the bergamot fruit, grown mostly in southern Italy. It is used in perfume and aromatherapy, and small trials have tested the smell for stress and mood. The evidence is low quality. The main caution: the pressed oil contains bergapten, which can cause blistering and dark patches when skin meets sunlight or a tanning bed, and it is not for swallowing.
General information, not medical advice. Last substantive update · Not medically reviewed. A named clinician has not signed off on this page. How this page is made
About Bergamot Oil
Bergamot oil is a citrus perfume oil. Small trials report calmer mood when it is smelled, but they are low quality. Safety comes first: the pressed oil can cause blisters and dark patches when skin meets sunlight, essential oils should not be swallowed, and the oil can cause skin allergy.
What bergamot oil is
Bergamot oil is the essential oil from the rind of the bergamot fruit. A 2017 systematic review says the fruit originated in the Mediterranean region of southern Italy (Calabria) and names it Citrus bergamia Risso et Poiteau. The review lists uses in perfumes, cosmetics and for stress reduction.
The Global Biodiversity Information Facility (GBIF) lists the name Citrus × bergamia as a synonym of Citrus × limon, so you may see either name.
The aroma compounds include linalyl acetate, linalool and limonene. The sun-sensitizing compounds are bergapten and bergamottin.
What people use it for, and how strong the evidence is
Stress, anxiety and mood are the best-studied uses, and every trial is about smelling the oil. A 2017 review found the studies small and not high quality. Newer trials in students, people in addiction treatment and women after childbirth report lower scores, but most were open-label or had no placebo smell.
Sleep results are mixed: a Japanese crossover trial improved morning freshness, while a Taiwanese trial in new mothers found no sleep difference. One Turkish trial of 90 women found lower premenstrual syndrome scores.
None of these trials tested the oil on skin or swallowed, and none supports using it that way.
The research in one view
Seven human trials and one review were read: five on mood and anxiety, one on sleep and mood in a crossover design, one on premenstrual symptoms. All are small. Certainty is low or very low. No trial compared bergamot with a placebo smell that people could not tell apart.
One pilot was written by authors working at an essential-oil company. That is labelled in the Evidence tab.
The oil, juice extracts, tea and special formulations are different things
Bergamot juice polyphenol extracts have been studied for blood fats. That is a different product from the oil, and it is not covered here. Earl Grey tea is a flavoured tea, not essential oil. A specially engineered formulation (NanoBEO) is being tested for dementia agitation; the only paper read is in animals.
What regulators and industry say
The fragrance industry's own safety body (IFRA, 2020) restricts expressed bergamot oil in finished products because of phototoxicity: the usual limit is 0.0015% bergapten. A 2005 EU committee said total furocoumarins above 1 ppm in any finished cosmetic would be of concern. The US FDA says certain citrus oils safe in food can be harmful in cosmetics on sun-exposed skin, and that claims about anxiety or sleep are drug claims. NCCIH, EMA, LiverTox and LactMed were not checked.
At a glance
Traditional uses history, not proof
- Scent in perfumes, cosmetics and aromatherapy (2017 systematic review).
- Used for stress reduction in aromatherapy (2017 systematic review).
- Colognes such as 'Florida Water', used in some communities for spiritual blessing, headaches and hygiene (2002 case report).
Studied for research
- Stress and anxiety, smelled oil, low
- Mood and positive feelings, smelled oil, low
- Sleep quality, smelled oil, very low
- Premenstrual symptoms, smelled oil, very low
- Psoriasis with ultraviolet B light, insufficient
- Agitation and pain in dementia (special formulation, animal only), insufficient
Main compounds
- Bergapten (5-MOP), the main sun-sensitizing furocoumarin
- Bergamottin, a grapefruit-type furanocoumarin
- Linalyl acetate, linalool and limonene, main aroma compounds
Common forms
- Essential oil pressed from the peel (cold-pressed or expressed)
- Distilled or processed oils sold with furocoumarins reduced (claims not verified)
- Perfumes and colognes containing the oil
- Bergamot juice or polyphenol extracts and Earl Grey tea (different products)
Research links: IFRA Standard on citrus oils and furocoumarins (2020) · EU SCCP opinion on furocoumarins in cosmetics (2005) · FDA: Aromatherapy · Poison Control: Essential oils · Systematic review of Citrus bergamia (abstract) · Bullous phototoxic reactions to bergamot oil (abstract) · Research Library · Genes & Biomarkers Library
What it is and its history
- Accepted scientific name
- Citrus bergamia
- Naming authority
- Risso & Poit.
- Synonyms
- Citrus aurantium ssp. bergamia; Citrus × bergamia (Risso) Risso & Poit.
- Common names
- Bergamot (English); Bergamot orange (English); Bergamot essential oil (English); Bergamot peel oil (English)
- Family or group
- Rutaceae (the citrus family), per GBIF.
- Classification
- Plantae > Tracheophyta > Magnoliopsida > Sapindales > Rutaceae > Citrus > Citrus bergamia (name in the research papers)
- Native range
- The 2017 systematic review says the fruit originated in the Mediterranean region of southern Italy (Calabria). Greek-grown bergamot is also described (Kefalonia).
- Habitat
- Not checked.
- What it looks like
- Part used: The oil is pressed ('expressed') from the rind of the fruit; hydrodistilled oil is also described in one analysis. This page does not teach how to recognise the tree.
- Look-alikes and adulterants
- Name: Other citrus oils and 'bergamot' on tea labels and in other products; Note: Lemon, lime, grapefruit and bitter orange expressed oils also carry furocoumarins; Earl Grey tea and wild bergamot (Monarda) are different products. A result for one product does not carry over to another.
- Sustainability and conservation
- Not checked.
Photographs
Traditional use and history history, not clinical proof
| Tradition or era | Documented use | Source |
|---|---|---|
| Perfume, cosmetics and aromatherapy | The 2017 systematic review says the oil is used in perfumes, cosmetics and for stress reduction. | Mannucci et al 2017 |
| Cosmetics, then restrictions | A 2001 dermatology report says the oil had been widely used in cosmetics until restricted or banned in most countries because of adverse effects, and that it was regaining popularity in aromatherapy. | Kaddu et al 2001 |
| Colognes used in some Caribbean, Hispanic and African American communities | A 2002 report says 'Florida Water' and 'Kananga Water' colognes, which can contain oil of bergamot, are used for spiritual blessing, treating headaches and personal hygiene. | Wang et al 2002 |
Traditional use shows how it was used. It does not show that it works or is safe today.
What is inside, and how it may work
What it contains and how those compounds act in cells and animals. Laboratory and animal mechanisms are not proven effects in people.
Main compounds
| Compound | Family | Where it is concentrated | Activity studied | Level of evidence |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Bergapten (5-methoxypsoralen, 5-MOP) PubChem 2355 | furocoumarin | Cold-pressed peel oil A fragrance-industry table in the 2005 EU opinion lists up to 2300 ppm (0.23%) in bergamot oil; levels vary by oil and supplier. | The main photoactive compound in the oil; phototoxic and, with light, photomutagenic (dermatology report) and tumour-promoting in mice. 28 7 19 22 | Human case reports, animal, laboratory |
| Bergamottin PubChem 5471349 | furanocoumarin | Cold-pressed peel oil Table in the 2005 EU opinion lists up to 2.22% in bergamot oil. | Belongs to the grapefruit-type compounds that inactivate gut CYP3A4; raised atorvastatin levels in rats. 29 20 5 22 | Animal, model |
| Linalyl acetate PubChem 8294 | monoterpene ester | Cold-pressed peel oil The main constituent of a Greek cold-pressed oil; linalool plus linalyl acetate reached at most 55.8% in that analysis. | Aroma compound; oxidation products of linalool and limonene are known skin allergens. 30 11 | Laboratory |
| Linalool PubChem 6549 | monoterpene alcohol | Cold-pressed peel oil An important constituent in the Greek oil analysis; no typical value given. | Oxidized linalool is a known skin sensitizer in patch-test clinics. 31 11 15 13 | Human patch tests, laboratory |
| Limonene PubChem 22311 | monoterpene | Cold-pressed peel oil An important constituent in the Greek oil analysis; no typical value given. | Oxidized limonene is a known skin sensitizer in patch-test clinics. 32 11 15 13 | Human patch tests, laboratory |
Mechanisms, receptors and pathways
| Target or pathway | Gene or receptor | What was found | Level |
|---|---|---|---|
| Light-activated skin reaction (phototoxicity) | Not specified in the abstracts | Bergapten in the oil makes skin react to ultraviolet light; two of four supplier oils were photoactive by analysis. Skin sensitivity peaked about 2 hours after a model perfume was applied in a 1990 human test. 7 8 3 | Human / in vitro |
| Ultraviolet tumour promotion | Not specified | In hairless mice 5-MOP in bergamot-oil perfumes shortened time to tumours under simulated sunlight, even at 5 ppm. 19 | Animal research |
| Gut CYP3A4 inactivation (grapefruit-type) | CYP3A4 | Furanocoumarins such as bergamottin inactivate intestinal CYP3A4 in grapefruit; in rats bergamottin raised atorvastatin levels. Not shown for bergamot oil in people. 5 20 | Animal / model |
| Calming effect of the scent | Not established | No mechanism was established in the human trials read. 10 | Not assessed |
Absorption, metabolism and elimination
- Absorption
- Not established in the sources read.
- Distribution
- Not established.
- Metabolism
- Not established for the oil. Bergamottin is described as a CYP3A4 inactivator in grapefruit models.
- Elimination
- Not established.
- Bioavailability
- Not established.
Isolated compounds versus whole extracts
Bergamot essential oil (pressed peel oil) is not the same as bergamot juice or its polyphenol extract (studied for blood fats), bergamot-flavoured tea, or specially engineered formulations. Findings do not carry over between them. A 2017 review kept the oil studies and the juice-polyphenol studies apart.
Nutritional composition
Bergamot oil is not a nutrient or a food source of any vitamin or mineral.
2 low certainty2 very low certainty2 not enough evidence
What was looked at
The 6 benefits and uses checked for Bergamot Oil, each with how strong the evidence is. Tap one to open it.
- Stress and anxiety (smelling the oil)Low certainty
- Mood and positive feelings (smelling the oil)Low certainty
- Sleep quality (smelling the oil)Very low certainty
- Premenstrual symptoms (smelling the oil)Very low certainty
- Psoriasis alongside ultraviolet B light treatmentNot enough evidence
- Agitation and pain in dementia (a special nano formulation, animal work only)Not enough evidence
Lab markers tracked in the studies
State Anxiety Inventory (SAI) scoreDepression Anxiety Stress Scales (DASS-21) scoresPositive and Negative Affect Scale (PANAS) positive feelingsEdinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale (EPDS) scorePremenstrual Syndrome Scale (PMSS) score
What is Bergamot Oil good for?
The uses people ask about and how strong the evidence is for each. Read the certainty label first: every benefit finding is for smelling the oil, from small trials of low quality.
Benefits, one by one
Each card is a research question, not a promise. Tap a goal to filter. Open a card to see the studies, doses and limits.
Stress and anxiety (smelling the oil)
Low certaintySmall trials of smelling bergamot oil report lower stress or anxiety scores. A 2017 review judged these studies small and not high quality. Two newer trials (2025 and 2026) found lower scores, but one had no placebo and the other was open-label.
3 studiesNot covered. This page gives no amounts and no ways of using the oil.
Studies, doses and limits
What the trials found
A 2017 systematic review found six clinical studies of the oil for stress (small, not high quality). In a 2026 randomized open-label trial of 57 university students, bergamot aroma stones lowered state anxiety before exams compared with water-only stones. In a 2025 randomized trial of 100 adults in treatment for substance use disorder (standard care as the comparison, no placebo), the group using bergamot scent reported lower DASS-21 anxiety and depression sub-scores and more 'ease'.
Results
Exam trial: state anxiety scores were lower in the bergamot group at 180 minutes on all 3 days (all p < 0.0167, Cohen's d > 0.8); the overall DASS-21 scores did not differ between groups. Treatment-centre trial: ease p = 0.022, DASS-21 depression p = 0.007, anxiety p = 0.013 in favour of bergamot. The 2017 review said aromatherapy 'could be safe and useful' for stress symptoms but could not draw firm conclusions.
Effect sizes as reported
Exam trial: Cohen's d above 0.8 (as reported). Treatment-centre trial: p-values only in the abstract.
Why this rating
Small trials, scent cannot be hidden from people, one comparison had no placebo, self-reported scores, and the only review found low study quality and likely publication bias.
Form and dose studied
Not covered. This page gives no amounts and no ways of using the oil.
Who was studied
University students before exams; adults in outpatient substance-use treatment; mixed small samples in the review.
Limits
Single-centre trials; open-label; self-rated scores; short follow-up; the review warns of publication bias. A better-designed trial with a placebo smell is still needed.
Why researchers looked
Bergamot oil is a common scent in perfumes and aromatherapy, so researchers have tested it as a calming smell.
Traditional use
The 2017 review notes the oil is used in perfumes, cosmetics and for stress reduction.
Proposed mechanism Preliminary mechanism
Not established in the papers read.
A proposed mechanism does not show that the effect happens in people.
Scent only. These trials do not show the oil is safe on skin in sunlight or safe to swallow. See the Safety tab.
Mood and positive feelings (smelling the oil)
Low certaintyTwo small studies report better mood after smelling the oil: one pilot in a mental health clinic waiting room and one trial in women after childbirth. Both are small, and the waiting-room pilot was written by staff of an essential-oil company.
2 studiesNot covered. This page gives no amounts and no ways of using the oil.
Studies, doses and limits
What the trials found
A 2017 pilot of 57 people (50 women) in a Utah mental-health treatment centre compared periods with and without the oil in the waiting room. A 2022 Taiwanese randomized trial gave 60 women at a postpartum care centre either bergamot oil aroma (29) or pure water aroma (31) for 15 minutes a day.
Results
Waiting-room pilot: 15 minutes of bergamot oil gave 17% higher positive feelings than the control periods. Postpartum trial: depressive mood (Edinburgh scale) was lower in the bergamot group at 2 and 4 weeks (p < .001).
Effect sizes as reported
17% higher positive feelings (pilot). Postpartum: p < .001 at both time points; no effect size in the abstract.
Why this rating
Two small studies, scent is hard to blind, mood is self-rated, and one study came from authors employed by an essential-oil company.
Form and dose studied
Not covered. This page gives no amounts and no ways of using the oil.
Who was studied
People attending a mental-health treatment centre (mostly women); women living at a postpartum care centre in Taiwan.
Limits
Small samples; not placebo-blinded in a reliable way; the pilot design was unusual (more people took part in the oil periods); the postpartum trial reports no effect size.
Why researchers looked
Mood is the most common thing aromatherapy trials try to measure.
Proposed mechanism Preliminary mechanism
Not established in the papers read.
A proposed mechanism does not show that the effect happens in people.
Scent only. Low mood that lasts needs care from a clinician.
Sleep quality (smelling the oil)
Very low certaintyA small Japanese crossover trial reported better morning freshness and sleep length with a bergamot spray. A Taiwanese trial in new mothers found no difference in sleep quality. So the evidence is mixed and thin.
2 studiesNot covered. This page gives no amounts and no ways of using the oil.
Studies, doses and limits
What the trials found
A randomized open-label crossover trial of 48 university students (placebo spray, one week per period) and the postpartum trial of 60 women described above.
Results
Students: improvement in 'sleepiness on rising', 'refreshing on rising' and 'sleep length' with bergamot, and in depression, anxiety and stress scores (DASS-21). Postpartum women: no significant difference in sleep quality between groups at 2 or 4 weeks (p > .05).
Effect sizes as reported
Not given in the abstracts.
Why this rating
Two small studies that disagree, both with self-reported sleep scores.
Form and dose studied
Not covered. This page gives no amounts and no ways of using the oil.
Who was studied
University students in Tokyo during the COVID-19 pandemic; women at a postpartum care centre.
Limits
Open-label despite a placebo spray; self-reported; short; the abstracts give no effect sizes.
Why researchers looked
Calming scents are often tried for sleep.
Proposed mechanism Preliminary mechanism
Not established in the papers read.
A proposed mechanism does not show that the effect happens in people.
Scent only. If sleep problems last, see a clinician.
Premenstrual symptoms (smelling the oil)
Very low certaintyOne 2025 Turkish trial of 90 women found lower premenstrual syndrome scores after smelling bergamot oil than after a placebo smell. It found no change on the menstrual symptom scale. One trial is not enough to rely on.
1 studiesNot covered. This page gives no amounts and no ways of using the oil.
Studies, doses and limits
What the trials found
A randomized trial of 90 women with premenstrual syndrome in three groups of 30: bergamot oil, grapefruit oil or placebo, each smelled during the luteal phase of three menstrual cycles (NCT06289764).
Results
Bergamot lowered the Premenstrual Syndrome Scale total score (p = 0.001) and sub-scores for depressive affect (p = 0.013), irritability (p = 0.034), depressive thoughts and appetite changes (p = 0.026) and pain (p = 0.001). It had no effect on the Menstrual Symptom Questionnaire. Grapefruit oil lowered both PMS and some menstrual-pain scores.
Effect sizes as reported
p-values only in the abstract.
Why this rating
A single small trial; smell makes true blinding difficult; self-reported scores; no independent repeat found.
Form and dose studied
Not covered. This page gives no amounts and no ways of using the oil.
Who was studied
Women with premenstrual syndrome in Turkey.
Limits
One trial; scores self-rated; the abstract gives no effect sizes; the authors declared no competing interests.
Why researchers looked
Mood changes and irritability before a period are a common reason people try aromatherapy.
Proposed mechanism Preliminary mechanism
Not established.
A proposed mechanism does not show that the effect happens in people.
Scent only. Severe or unusual period problems need a clinician.
Psoriasis alongside ultraviolet B light treatment
Not enough evidenceThe 2017 review mentions one study that suggests bergamot oil might help ultraviolet B light treatment for chronic psoriasis. That is one study, and light plus bergamot oil is exactly the pairing that can burn skin.
1 studiesNot covered. This page gives no amounts and no ways of using the oil.
Studies, doses and limits
What the trials found
One clinical study described inside a 2017 systematic review. The original study was not opened.
Results
The review says the study suggests a potential supportive role in ultraviolet B therapy against psoriasis.
Effect sizes as reported
Not given.
Why this rating
One study, known only through a review abstract, with low overall quality.
Form and dose studied
Not covered. This page gives no amounts and no ways of using the oil.
Who was studied
People with chronic psoriasis (details not read).
Limits
Original paper not read; no other trial found; phototoxic risk of the oil with light is documented elsewhere (see Safety).
Why researchers looked
Bergapten, a compound in the oil, is related to psoralens used with light in skin treatments.
Proposed mechanism Preliminary mechanism
Not established in the paper read.
A proposed mechanism does not show that the effect happens in people.
This is the very light-and-oil combination that causes burns in other reports. Do not combine oils and light treatment without a dermatologist.
Agitation and pain in dementia (a special nano formulation, animal work only)
Not enough evidenceItalian researchers have been testing a specially engineered formulation of the oil (called NanoBEO) for agitation and pain in dementia. The one paper read here is in animals only, so it says nothing yet about people.
1 studiesNot covered. This page gives no amounts and no ways of using the oil.
Studies, doses and limits
Results
In animals, a single dose of the formulation was effective 30 minutes after capsaicin and on the central sensitization phase of formalin pain, and on mechanical allodynia.
Effect sizes as reported
Animal ID50 of 0.6312 mg (as reported); not a human figure.
Why this rating
Animal and lab results only.
Form and dose studied
Not covered. This page gives no amounts and no ways of using the oil.
Who was studied
Mice (pain models). No people.
Limits
Animal study; a special formulation, not ordinary oil; no human results read.
Why researchers looked
Unrelieved pain can drive agitation in people with dementia, and the researchers want a safer option than antipsychotic drugs.
Proposed mechanism Preliminary mechanism
Animal pain models showed effects of the formulation on capsaicin- and formalin-induced pain and on allodynia (pain from light touch).
A proposed mechanism does not show that the effect happens in people.
Animal tests only. The tested product was a special formulation, not ordinary bottled oil.
Connections to the rest of health
How Bergamot Oil connects to the rest of our health knowledge graph. Every link says what kind of connection it is. A safety link (for example to the liver) is a warning, not a benefit. A study that merely mentions a topic never creates a benefit link.
Explore every connection: goals, body systems, organs, symptoms, genes
A. Wellness goals
| Connected to | Kind of connection | Evidence status | Context | Studies |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Anxiety Support | Potential benefit | Low certainty | Stress and anxiety (smelling the oil): Small trials of smelling bergamot oil report lower stress or anxiety scores. A 2017 review judged these studies small and not high quality. Two newer trials (2025 and 2026) found lower scores, but one had no placebo and the other was open-label. | 10 17 12 |
| Stress Reduction | Potential benefit | Low certainty | Stress and anxiety (smelling the oil): Small trials of smelling bergamot oil report lower stress or anxiety scores. A 2017 review judged these studies small and not high quality. Two newer trials (2025 and 2026) found lower scores, but one had no placebo and the other was open-label. Mood and positive feelings (smelling the oil): Two small studies report better mood after smelling the oil: one pilot in a mental health clinic waiting room and one trial in women after childbirth. Both are small, and the waiting-room pilot was written by staff of an essential-oil company. | 10 17 12 6 2 16 |
| Calm Relaxation | Potential benefit | Low certainty | Stress and anxiety (smelling the oil): Small trials of smelling bergamot oil report lower stress or anxiety scores. A 2017 review judged these studies small and not high quality. Two newer trials (2025 and 2026) found lower scores, but one had no placebo and the other was open-label. Premenstrual symptoms (smelling the oil): One 2025 Turkish trial of 90 women found lower premenstrual syndrome scores after smelling bergamot oil than after a placebo smell. It found no change on the menstrual symptom scale. One trial is not enough to rely on. | 10 17 12 33 |
| Mood Support | Potential benefit | Low certainty | Mood and positive feelings (smelling the oil): Two small studies report better mood after smelling the oil: one pilot in a mental health clinic waiting room and one trial in women after childbirth. Both are small, and the waiting-room pilot was written by staff of an essential-oil company. | 6 2 |
| Mental Wellbeing | Potential benefit | Low certainty | Mood and positive feelings (smelling the oil): Two small studies report better mood after smelling the oil: one pilot in a mental health clinic waiting room and one trial in women after childbirth. Both are small, and the waiting-room pilot was written by staff of an essential-oil company. | 6 2 |
| Better Sleep | Potential benefit | Very low certainty | Sleep quality (smelling the oil): A small Japanese crossover trial reported better morning freshness and sleep length with a bergamot spray. A Taiwanese trial in new mothers found no difference in sleep quality. So the evidence is mixed and thin. | 16 2 |
| Sleep Quality | Potential benefit | Very low certainty | Sleep quality (smelling the oil): A small Japanese crossover trial reported better morning freshness and sleep length with a bergamot spray. A Taiwanese trial in new mothers found no difference in sleep quality. So the evidence is mixed and thin. | 16 2 |
| Womens Wellness | Potential benefit | Very low certainty | Premenstrual symptoms (smelling the oil): One 2025 Turkish trial of 90 women found lower premenstrual syndrome scores after smelling bergamot oil than after a placebo smell. It found no change on the menstrual symptom scale. One trial is not enough to rely on. | 33 |
| Mood Balance | Potential benefit | Very low certainty | Premenstrual symptoms (smelling the oil): One 2025 Turkish trial of 90 women found lower premenstrual syndrome scores after smelling bergamot oil than after a placebo smell. It found no change on the menstrual symptom scale. One trial is not enough to rely on. | 33 |
| Healthy Skin | Not enough evidence | Psoriasis alongside ultraviolet B light treatment: The 2017 review mentions one study that suggests bergamot oil might help ultraviolet B light treatment for chronic psoriasis. That is one study, and light plus bergamot oil is exactly the pairing that can burn skin. | 10 | |
| Skin Health | Not enough evidence | Psoriasis alongside ultraviolet B light treatment: The 2017 review mentions one study that suggests bergamot oil might help ultraviolet B light treatment for chronic psoriasis. That is one study, and light plus bergamot oil is exactly the pairing that can burn skin. | 10 | |
| Calm Relaxation | Not enough evidence | Agitation and pain in dementia (a special nano formulation, animal work only): Italian researchers have been testing a specially engineered formulation of the oil (called NanoBEO) for agitation and pain in dementia. The one paper read here is in animals only, so it says nothing yet about people. | 14 | |
| Pain Relief | Not enough evidence | Agitation and pain in dementia (a special nano formulation, animal work only): Italian researchers have been testing a specially engineered formulation of the oil (called NanoBEO) for agitation and pain in dementia. The one paper read here is in animals only, so it says nothing yet about people. | 14 |
B. Body systems
| Connected to | Kind of connection | Evidence status | Context | Studies |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Nervous System | Biological association | Low certainty | Studied for: Stress and anxiety (smelling the oil) Studied for: Mood and positive feelings (smelling the oil) | 10 17 12 6 2 16 14 |
| Stress Mood | Biological association | Low certainty | Studied for: Stress and anxiety (smelling the oil) Studied for: Mood and positive feelings (smelling the oil) | 10 17 12 6 2 33 |
| Sleep Recovery | Biological association | Very low certainty | Studied for: Sleep quality (smelling the oil) | 16 2 |
| Reproductive System | Biological association | Very low certainty | Studied for: Premenstrual symptoms (smelling the oil) | 33 |
| Integumentary System | Biological association | Not enough evidence | Studied for: Psoriasis alongside ultraviolet B light treatment | 10 |
| Skin | Biological association | Not enough evidence | Studied for: Psoriasis alongside ultraviolet B light treatment | 10 |
| Pain Inflammation | Biological association | Not enough evidence | Studied for: Agitation and pain in dementia (a special nano formulation, animal work only) | 14 |
E. Health conditions
| Connected to | Kind of connection | Evidence status | Context | Studies |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Photosensitivity of skin | Adverse effect or risk | Documented risk | Phototoxic blistering and pigment changes in case reports and lab tests. Preparation or compound: Bergamot oil (bergapten) |
7 9 8 3 |
| Contact dermatitis | Adverse effect or risk | Documented risk | Patch-test clinic series; not tests of the oil itself. Preparation or compound: Oxidized linalool and limonene (components of the oil) |
15 13 |
I. Biomarkers
| Connected to | Kind of connection | Evidence status | Context | Studies |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| State Anxiety Inventory (SAI) score | Biological association | Low certainty | Measured in trials: decrease. A lab change is not the same as a health benefit. | 17 |
| Depression Anxiety Stress Scales (DASS-21) scores | Biological association | Low certainty | Measured in trials: decrease. A lab change is not the same as a health benefit. | 12 16 17 |
| Positive and Negative Affect Scale (PANAS) positive feelings | Biological association | Very low certainty | Measured in trials: increase. A lab change is not the same as a health benefit. | 6 |
| Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale (EPDS) score | Biological association | Low certainty | Measured in trials: decrease. A lab change is not the same as a health benefit. | 2 |
| Premenstrual Syndrome Scale (PMSS) score | Biological association | Very low certainty | Measured in trials: decrease. A lab change is not the same as a health benefit. | 33 |
J. Genes, receptors and enzymes
L. Active compounds
| Connected to | Kind of connection | Evidence status | Context | Studies |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Bergapten (5-methoxypsoralen) | Adverse effect or risk | Documented risk | Phototoxic and, in mice with light, tumour-promoting; limited in skin products. Preparation or compound: Cold-pressed bergamot oil |
19 23 22 |
| Bergapten (5-methoxypsoralen, 5-MOP) | Biological association | Human case reports, animal, laboratory | The main photoactive compound in the oil; phototoxic and, with light, photomutagenic (dermatology report) and tumour-promoting in mice. Preparation or compound: Cold-pressed peel oil |
28 7 19 22 |
| Bergamottin | Biological association | Animal, model | Belongs to the grapefruit-type compounds that inactivate gut CYP3A4; raised atorvastatin levels in rats. Preparation or compound: Cold-pressed peel oil |
29 20 5 22 |
| Linalyl acetate | Biological association | Laboratory | Aroma compound; oxidation products of linalool and limonene are known skin allergens. Preparation or compound: Cold-pressed peel oil |
30 11 |
| Linalool | Biological association | Human patch tests, laboratory | Oxidized linalool is a known skin sensitizer in patch-test clinics. Preparation or compound: Cold-pressed peel oil |
31 11 15 13 |
| Limonene | Biological association | Human patch tests, laboratory | Oxidized limonene is a known skin sensitizer in patch-test clinics. Preparation or compound: Cold-pressed peel oil |
32 11 15 13 |
Each connection is stored with the ingredient, the connected record, the kind of connection, the evidence status, the supporting studies, the preparation or compound involved, and a review date (last reviewed October 25, 2026).
Evidence at a glance: what the research found for 6 outcomes
Each outcome below is one thing researchers measured. Certainty is how far the evidence can be trusted, not how well it works. The full studies are on the next tab.
The evidence
The research centre for Bergamot Oil. Every record here was checked against PubMed or the publisher's page; we never list a study we have not verified.
Evidence by outcome
Bars show how many studies we found for each outcome, not how well it works. People are added up across trials only (reviews are not added, to avoid double counting).
How we rate evidence
High certainty
Several well-run trials or reviews agree; further research is unlikely to change the picture much.
Moderate certainty
Good trials point the same way, but some doubt remains.
Low certainty
Small, short or inconsistent trials. The finding could change with better research.
Very low certainty
Very little or very weak human data. Treat as a possibility only.
Mixed findings
Trials or reviews disagree with each other.
Not enough evidence
Not enough human research to say either way.
Evidence against
Good research found no benefit, or found harm.
We take the reviewers' own risk-of-bias and GRADE statements where they exist, and otherwise judge from study size, design, consistency, directness and whether a product matches what is sold. Many publications do not make evidence high. Method note: We read the abstracts of 21 PubMed papers, the full IFRA standard and the EU SCCP opinion, and the FDA and Poison Control pages; we checked the plant name in GBIF and the compounds in PubChem. We did not check NCCIH, EMA, LiverTox or LactMed.
Study library: every study we checked 33
| Study | Design | People | Product, dose, length | Result |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Berteina-Raboin 2025 Flavonoids and Furanocoumarins Involved in Drug Interactions. Molecules · PMID 40333661 · DOI |
Narrative review review |
Review of fruit juices and drug interactions | Citrus and other juices Not reported here |
Grapefruit's flavonoids and furanocoumarins cause well-documented interactions with the cytochrome P450 system; the review discusses other juices too. Methods, limits and fundingOutcomes: Interactions via CYP450, P-glycoprotein, OATP Limitations: Not about bergamot oil. Funding and conflicts: No conflicts declared. Read: abstract |
| Chen 2022 The Effect of Bergamot Essential Oil Aromatherapy on Improving Depressive Mood and Sleep Quality in Postpartum Women: A Randomized Controlled Trial. J Nurs Res · PMID 34690334 · DOI |
Randomized controlled trial |
60 Women living at a postpartum care centre in eastern Taiwan (29 bergamot, 31 water aroma) |
Bergamot essential oil aroma essential oil (peel) Not reported here 15 minutes a day; checked at 2 and 4 weeks · vs Pure water aroma |
Depressive mood was lower in the bergamot group at both time points (p < .001). No significant difference in sleep quality (p > .05). p < .001 (EPDS); no effect size in the abstract Methods, limits and fundingOutcomes: Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale; Postpartum Sleep Quality Scale Limitations: Small, consecutive sampling, scent hard to blind, self-rated. Funding and conflicts: Conflicts of interest: none declared. Read: abstract |
| Dubertret 1990 Phototoxic properties of perfumes containing bergamot oil on human skin: photoprotective effect of UVA and UVB sunscreens. J Photochem Photobiol B · PMID 2128327 · DOI |
Human skin test |
Volunteers | Model perfumes with 5, 15, 50 ppm 5-MOP in bergamot oil essential oil (peel) Not reported here · vs With and without sunscreen |
Skin photosensitivity was maximal 2 hours after perfume application. Low-concentration UVA and UVB sunscreens in perfumes could not suppress phototoxicity on human skin. Methods, limits and fundingOutcomes: Skin phototoxicity Limitations: 1990; number of volunteers not in the abstract. Funding and conflicts: Not stated in the abstract. Read: abstract |
| Finsterer 2002 Earl Grey tea intoxication. Lancet · PMID 11988248 · DOI |
Case report (letter, no abstract) |
1 One adult man (as indexed) |
Earl Grey tea essential oil (peel) Not reported here |
The record has no abstract. Its index terms list muscle cramp, fasciculation and vision disorders (etiology) with furocoumarins and tea under adverse effects. Methods, limits and fundingOutcomes: Muscle cramps, fasciculations, vision disorders (index terms) Limitations: Only the PubMed record was read, not the letter's text. Funding and conflicts: Not stated. Read: metadata |
| Fuhr 2023 Physiologically Based Pharmacokinetic Modeling of Bergamottin and 6,7-Dihydroxybergamottin to Describe CYP3A4 Mediated Grapefruit-Drug Interactions. Clin Pharmacol Ther · PMID 37307228 · DOI |
Pharmacokinetic modelling from 43 clinical studies model |
Computer models using published grapefruit-juice studies | Bergamottin and 6,7-dihydroxybergamottin as grapefruit ingredients Not reported here |
Grapefruit is a moderate to strong CYP3A4 inactivator, mainly by furanocoumarins acting on intestinal CYP3A4; models of bergamottin and the dihydroxy form described interactions with 10 victim drugs. Methods, limits and fundingOutcomes: CYP3A4 inactivation and drug levels Limitations: About grapefruit, not bergamot oil. Funding and conflicts: Not stated. Read: abstract |
| Han 2017 Bergamot (Citrus bergamia) Essential Oil Inhalation Improves Positive Feelings in the Waiting Room of a Mental Health Treatment Center: A Pilot Study. Phytother Res · PMID 28337799 · DOI |
Pilot study with control periods |
57 Adults (50 women, age 23-70) in a mental-health treatment centre waiting room in Utah |
Bergamot essential oil, inhaled essential oil (peel) Not reported here 15 minutes · vs Control periods without the oil |
15 minutes of bergamot oil improved positive feelings compared with the control group (17% higher). More people took part in the oil periods than control periods. 17% higher positive feelings Methods, limits and fundingOutcomes: Positive and Negative Affect Scale Limitations: Pilot; short effect; not reliably blinded. The first author and the last author are listed at dōTERRA International, an essential-oil company. Funding and conflicts: Industry-linked: author affiliations include dōTERRA International, LLC (an essential-oil company). Read: abstract |
| Kaddu 2001 Accidental bullous phototoxic reactions to bergamot aromatherapy oil. J Am Acad Dermatol · PMID 11511848 · DOI |
Case report (two patients) |
2 Two patients with blistering skin reactions |
Bergamot aromatherapy oil (one by evaporated oil in a sauna) essential oil (peel) Not reported here Reactions within 48 to 72 hours |
Localized and disseminated bullous phototoxic reactions 48 to 72 hours after bergamot aromatherapy oil and ultraviolet exposure. One patient had only been exposed to evaporated oil in a sauna and then UVA in a tanning salon. Methods, limits and fundingOutcomes: Skin reactions Limitations: Two cases only; shows harm can happen, not how often. Funding and conflicts: Not stated in the abstract. Read: abstract |
| Kejlová 2007 Phototoxicity of bergamot oil assessed by in vitro techniques in combination with human patch tests. Toxicol In Vitro · PMID 17669618 · DOI |
Laboratory study with human photopatch tests in vitro / human |
Bergamot oil from four suppliers | Bergamot oil essential oil (peel) Not reported here |
Spectral and chemical analyses found two of four oils had potential for photoactivation; in vitro tests agreed. Extrapolating the in vitro results to the human situation is possible only to a limited extent. Methods, limits and fundingOutcomes: Phototoxicity in cell and reconstructed-skin tests; volunteers Limitations: Lab tests; the human step used the first non-phototoxic concentration. Funding and conflicts: Not stated in the abstract. Read: abstract |
| Knott 2007 [Purely natural: phototoxic dermatitis] (German case report). MMW Fortschr Med · PMID 17619401 |
Case report |
1 One patient |
Undiluted bergamot oil on skin with sunlight essential oil (peel) Not reported here |
Local application of undiluted bergamot oil with simultaneous sunlight caused a phototoxic reaction. The vesicles were treated successfully but hyperpigmentation and redness persisted. Methods, limits and fundingOutcomes: Skin reaction Limitations: One short German abstract. Funding and conflicts: Not stated. Read: abstract |
| Mannucci 2017 Clinical Pharmacology of Citrus bergamia: A Systematic Review. Phytother Res · PMID 27747942 · DOI |
Systematic review |
Ten clinical studies of bergamot not combined with other substances: six on the oil for stress, three on juice polyphenols for blood fats, one on the oil in chronic psoriasis | Bergamot essential oil (aromatherapy) and, separately, a juice polyphenol fraction essential oil (peel) Not reported here varied · vs varied |
Aromatherapy with the oil 'could be safe and useful' for stress symptoms. One study suggests a supportive role in ultraviolet B therapy for psoriasis. Juice polyphenols reduced blood fats in moderate hyperlipidemia (not the oil). Studies were small and not high quality. No pooled numbers in the abstract Methods, limits and fundingOutcomes: Stress symptoms; blood lipids; psoriasis Limitations: The authors say effectiveness and safety cannot be definitively drawn because of publication bias and low quality; further large trials are needed. Funding and conflicts: Not stated in the abstract. Read: abstract |
| Melliou 2009 High quality bergamot oil from Greece: Chemical analysis using chiral gas chromatography and larvicidal activity against the West Nile virus vector. Molecules · PMID 19255543 · DOI |
Laboratory analysis lab |
Cold-pressed and hydrodistilled bergamot oil from Kefalonia, Greece | Bergamot rind oil essential oil (peel) Not reported here |
Main constituent of the cold-pressed rind oil was (-)-linalyl acetate; other important constituents were linalool, limonene and gamma-terpinene. Methods, limits and fundingOutcomes: Chemical composition Limitations: One Greek oil; composition varies by origin and method. Funding and conflicts: Not stated. Read: abstract |
| Reven 2025 Using an aromatherapy intervention with Citrus bergamia (bergamot) essential oil in adults in treatment for substance use disorder: A randomized controlled trial. Int J Nurs Sci · PMID 40786851 · DOI |
Randomized controlled trial (feasibility and effect) |
100 Adults in outpatient treatment for substance use disorder (45 bergamot, 55 standard-care control) |
Bergamot essential oil, inhaled with a personal aroma inhaler essential oil (peel) Not reported here 7 days · vs Standard care (no placebo) |
Ease increased (p = 0.022) and DASS-21 depression (p = 0.007) and anxiety (p = 0.013) sub-scores improved in the bergamot group. Satisfaction was high. p-values only in the abstract Methods, limits and fundingOutcomes: Comfort, ease, stress (DASS-21) Limitations: No placebo; the authors describe it as feasibility work to inform a larger study with a placebo; reasons for non-participation or limited participation are listed in the abstract. Funding and conflicts: The authors declared no conflict of interest. Registration: NCT05660434 Read: abstract |
| Schubert 2023 Patch testing hydroperoxides of limonene and linalool in consecutive patients-Results of the IVDK 2018-2020. Contact Dermatitis · PMID 37177844 · DOI |
Consecutive patch test series |
5511 Patients in the German IVDK network, 2018-2020 |
Limonene and linalool hydroperoxides (patch tests) Not reported here |
Positive reactions: limonene hydroperoxides 3.1%, linalool hydroperoxides 8.8%; most weak, doubtful or irritant. The authors say the preparations are irritant and can give false positives. Methods, limits and fundingOutcomes: Positive patch-test reactions Limitations: Clinic population; irritancy may inflate positives. Funding and conflicts: Not stated. Read: abstract |
| Scuteri 2022 Analgesic Characteristics of NanoBEO Released by an Airless Dispenser for the Control of Agitation in Severe Dementia. Molecules · PMID 35956935 · DOI |
Animal study (pain models) animal |
Mice in pain and scratching models | NanoBEO: a nanotechnology-based bergamot essential oil formulation essential oil (peel) Not reported here single dose · vs Controls |
A single dose was effective after capsaicin, on central sensitization in formalin pain and on mechanical allodynia; ID50 0.6312 mg. The abstract refers to the human BRAINAID trial (NCT04321889). ID50 0.6312 mg (animal) Methods, limits and fundingOutcomes: Pain behaviours and scratching Limitations: Animal study; special formulation, not ordinary oil. Funding and conflicts: The authors declare no conflict of interest. Read: abstract |
| Sukakul 2022 Contact allergy to oxidized linalool and oxidized limonene: Patch testing in consecutive patients with dermatitis. Contact Dermatitis · PMID 34561893 · DOI |
Retrospective patch test series |
5773 Patients with dermatitis at a Swedish clinic, 2013-2020 |
Oxidized linalool and oxidized limonene (patch tests) Not reported here |
Contact allergy to oxidized linalool 7.0% and oxidized limonene 5.1%, with significantly rising trends. Methods, limits and fundingOutcomes: Contact allergy prevalence Limitations: Clinic patients, not the public; tests of single oxidized compounds. Funding and conflicts: Not stated. Read: abstract |
| Wakui 2023 Relieving psychological stress and improving sleep quality by bergamot essential oil use before bedtime and upon awakening: A randomized crossover trial. Complement Ther Med · PMID 37625623 · DOI |
Randomized, open label, placebo controlled, two period crossover trial |
48 University students in Japan during the COVID-19 pandemic |
Bergamot essential oil spray essential oil (peel) Not reported here 1 week per period with a 1-week washout · vs Placebo spray |
Significant improvement in sleepiness on rising, refreshing on rising and sleep length, and in depression, anxiety and stress with the bergamot spray. Not given in the abstract Methods, limits and fundingOutcomes: Sleep quality and morning wakefulness (OSA-MA); depression, anxiety, stress (DASS-21) Limitations: Open-label; self-reported; students only; no effect sizes in the abstract. Funding and conflicts: Competing interests: none declared. Read: abstract |
| Wakui 2026 Evaluation of the Anxiety-Reducing Effects of Aroma Stones with Bergamot Essential Oil before Examinations: A Randomized Controlled Trial. J Integr Complement Med · PMID 42755326 · DOI |
Randomized, parallel group, open label trial |
57 Undergraduates at Hoshi University, Tokyo |
Bergamot essential oil on aroma stones essential oil (peel) Not reported here 3 days before regular examinations · vs Stones with water |
Bergamot group had significantly lower state-anxiety scores at 180 min on all 3 days (all p < 0.0167, Cohen's d > 0.8); relaxation scores improved; no significant between-group difference in DASS-21; no intervention-related adverse events reported. Cohen's d > 0.8 Methods, limits and fundingOutcomes: State Anxiety Inventory at 180 min (primary); relaxation, sleepiness, DASS-21, happiness (secondary) Limitations: Single centre, 57 students, open-label (no blinding). The authors ask for cautious interpretation. Funding and conflicts: Not stated in the abstract. Read: abstract |
| Wang 2002 Berloque dermatitis induced by 'Florida water'. Cutis · PMID 12184670 |
Case report |
Users of colognes | Perfumed waters with oil of bergamot (Florida Water, Kananga Water) essential oil (peel) Not reported here |
Berloque dermatitis is caused by high concentrations of psoralen-containing fragrances, most commonly oil of bergamot. It is rarely seen because those fragrances were removed from most US cosmetics, but Florida Water and Kananga Water users remain at risk. The waters are used for spiritual blessing, treating headaches and personal hygiene. Methods, limits and fundingOutcomes: Berloque dermatitis Limitations: Short report, no counts. Funding and conflicts: Not stated. Read: abstract |
| Young 1990 Phototumorigenesis studies of 5-methoxypsoralen in bergamot oil: evaluation and modification of risk of human use in an albino mouse skin model. J Photochem Photobiol B · PMID 2128326 · DOI |
Animal study (hairless mice) animal |
Female hairless albino mice (Skh 1) | 5-MOP in model perfumes with bergamot oil (0, 5, 15, 50 ppm) essential oil (peel) Not reported here Repeated exposure to solar-simulated radiation · vs Vehicle; sunscreens |
Highly significant 5-MOP dose effect; phototumorigenic potential even at 5 ppm. Sunscreens reduced tumour risk and gave total protection at the lower 5-MOP levels. 5-MOP in bergamot oil acted like pure 5-MOP. Tumours that eventually develop are as likely to be malignant. Methods, limits and fundingOutcomes: Time to tumour onset; tumour histology Limitations: Mouse study from 1990; funding not stated; not a human result. Funding and conflicts: Not stated in the abstract. Read: abstract |
| Zhang 2022 Pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamic interaction of bergamottin with atorvastatin in rats. Xenobiotica · PMID 35699169 · DOI |
Animal study (rats) animal |
Hyperlipidaemia-induced Wistar rats | Pure bergamottin 2.5 mg/kg with atorvastatin Not reported here · vs Atorvastatin alone |
Bergamottin raised atorvastatin Cmax from 48 to 89 ng/mL and AUC from 176 to 552 h*ug/L and lengthened its half-life; lipids fell further. The authors say it could increase efficacy or accumulation and adverse effects. Methods, limits and fundingOutcomes: Atorvastatin blood levels and lipids Limitations: Rats; pure compound, not bergamot oil. Funding and conflicts: Not stated. Read: abstract |
| Zhang 2026 Citrus Essential Oils: A Review of Chemical Composition, Bioactivity, Safe Use, and Potential Applications. Chem Biodivers · PMID 42105350 · DOI |
Narrative review review |
Citrus essential oils | Citrus essential oils in general essential oil (peel) Not reported here |
Notes the increasing prevalence of adulteration and pesticide residues in citrus oils and gives particular attention to furocoumarin-induced photosensitivity as a critical safety concern. Methods, limits and fundingOutcomes: Composition, adulteration, residues, furocoumarin photosensitivity Limitations: Abstract only; not bergamot-specific. Funding and conflicts: No conflicts declared. Read: abstract |
| n/a 2005 EU SCCP opinion SCCP/0942/05: Furocoumarins in cosmetic products, adopted 13 December 2005, read 2026-10-25 n/a · Source |
Scientific committee opinion n/a |
n/a | n/a Not reported here |
Furocoumarins are recognized as photomutagenic and photocarcinogenic (IARC: 5-MOP plus UV group 2A; 8-MOP plus UV group 1, as stated in the opinion); total furocoumarins above 1 ppm in any finished cosmetic are of concern. A fact-sheet table in the opinion lists bergapten in bergamot oil up to 2300 ppm (0.23%) and bergamottin up to 2.22%. Cold-pressed citrus oils would have to be distilled to fall below 1 ppm (authors of a cited paper). Methods, limits and fundingOutcomes: Furocoumarin limits in cosmetics Limitations: 2005 opinion; the numbers come from an industry fact sheet reproduced in it and were read from an image table. Read: full-text |
| n/a 2020 IFRA Standard: Citrus oils and other furocoumarins containing essential oils, Amendment 49 (2020), read 2026-10-25 n/a · Source |
Industry safety standard n/a |
n/a | n/a Not reported here |
0.0015% (5-MOP) in the finished product for categories 1-6, 7B, 8, 10B and 11B; no restriction for 7A, 9, 10A, 11A and 12. Bergamot oil expressed is among oils with recommended limits. The standard was set because of phototoxic effects. Methods, limits and fundingOutcomes: Maximum levels of bergapten in finished products Limitations: Industry self-regulation; a newer amendment may exist. Read: full-text |
| n/a 2023 FDA: Aromatherapy (cosmetic products), content current as of 09/08/2023, read 2026-10-25 n/a · Source |
Regulator page n/a |
n/a | n/a Not reported here |
Regulated by intended use; anxiety and sleep claims are drug claims; natural does not mean safe; certain citrus oils safe in food can be harmful in cosmetics, particularly on sun-exposed skin. Methods, limits and fundingOutcomes: Regulation and safety of aromatherapy products Limitations: Does not name bergamot. Read: full-text |
| n/a 2026 Poison Control (National Capital Poison Center): Essential oils: Poisonous when misused (read 2026-10-25) n/a · Source |
Poison prevention charity page n/a |
n/a | n/a Not reported here |
Misuse of essential oils can cause serious poisoning; some are poisonous swallowed or absorbed; aspiration can cause pneumonia; pure oils are potent and should not be used on damaged skin; children have thin skin and immature livers; most common allergic reaction is rash; products are not well regulated and species, concentration and contaminants can be unknown; keep out of reach of children and pets. Includes a toddler case after swallowing lavender extract. Methods, limits and fundingOutcomes: Essential oil poisoning, skin, children, pets Limitations: Not about bergamot specifically. Read: full-text |
| n/a 2026 NCCIH, EMA/HMPC, LiverTox, LactMed, WHO for bergamot oil (not checked, 2026-10-25) n/a |
Not checked n/a |
n/a | n/a Not reported here |
Not read in this build. Methods, limits and fundingOutcomes: Regulator statements Limitations: No check made. Read: full-text |
| n/a 2026 GBIF Backbone Taxonomy: Citrus bergamia match (GBIF match API, read 2026-10-25) n/a · Source |
Registry or database n/a |
n/a | n/a Not reported here |
Match returned 'Citrus × bergamia (Risso) Risso & Poit.' (key 6433772), status SYNONYM of Citrus × limon (L.) Osbeck (key 7647136), family Rutaceae, order Sapindales. Methods, limits and fundingOutcomes: Name status and family Read: full-text |
| n/a 2026 PubChem: Bergapten, CID 2355 (PUG REST, read 2026-10-25) n/a · Source |
Chemical registry n/a |
n/a | n/a Not reported here |
Bergapten, C12H8O4, molecular weight 216.19, IUPAC 4-methoxyfuro[3,2-g]chromen-7-one. Methods, limits and fundingOutcomes: Identity Read: full-text |
| n/a 2026 PubChem: Bergamottin, CID 5471349 (PUG REST name lookup, read 2026-10-25) n/a · Source |
Chemical registry n/a |
n/a | n/a Not reported here |
Bergamottin, C21H22O4, molecular weight 338.4, geranyloxy furocoumarin. Methods, limits and fundingOutcomes: Identity Read: full-text |
| n/a 2026 PubChem: Linalyl acetate, CID 8294 (PUG REST, read 2026-10-25) n/a · Source |
Chemical registry n/a |
n/a | n/a Not reported here |
Linalyl acetate, C12H20O2, molecular weight 196.29. Methods, limits and fundingOutcomes: Identity Read: full-text |
| n/a 2026 PubChem: Linalool, CID 6549 (PUG REST, read 2026-10-25) n/a · Source |
Chemical registry n/a |
n/a | n/a Not reported here |
Linalool, C10H18O, molecular weight 154.25. Methods, limits and fundingOutcomes: Identity Read: full-text |
| n/a 2026 PubChem: Limonene, CID 22311 (PUG REST, read 2026-10-25) n/a · Source |
Chemical registry n/a |
n/a | n/a Not reported here |
Limonene, C10H16, molecular weight 136.23. Methods, limits and fundingOutcomes: Identity Read: full-text |
| Özer 2025 The effect of aromatherapy intervention with Bergamot and Grapefruit essential oils on premenstrual syndrome and menstrual symptoms: a randomized controlled trial. BMC Complement Med Ther · PMID 40312670 · DOI |
Randomized controlled trial, three groups |
90 Women with premenstrual syndrome (30 bergamot, 30 grapefruit, 30 placebo) |
Bergamot essential oil (and grapefruit oil in another group), smelled essential oil (peel) Not reported here Luteal phase, repeated over 3 menstrual cycles · vs Placebo |
Bergamot lowered the PMSS total score (p = 0.001) and several sub-scores; no effect on menstrual symptoms. Grapefruit lowered PMS and some menstrual pain scores. The authors conclude bergamot was effective only for premenstrual symptoms. p-values only Methods, limits and fundingOutcomes: Premenstrual Syndrome Scale (PMSS); Menstrual Symptom Questionnaire (MSQ) Limitations: One trial; self-rated scores; smell makes blinding difficult. Funding and conflicts: The authors declare no competing interests. Registration: NCT06289764 Read: abstract |
What we do not know yet
- What the evidence supports: every benefit result is low or very low certainty and is for smelling the oil.
- No placebo-smell trial that people could not identify was found.
- No human study of skin cancer from bergamot oil; the tumour data are from mice.
- No NCCIH, EMA, LiverTox or LactMed statement was checked.
- No study of pregnancy, breastfeeding, children or pets for bergamot oil specifically.
How new research is added
New studies are found by a saved PubMed search and are placed in a review queue. A person reads each one before it is added.
Lab markers
What changed in blood or saliva tests during trials. A changed number is not the same as feeling or being healthier, and we give no "normal ranges".
Other 5
State Anxiety Inventory (SAI) score
Decrease in trials
A questionnaire that scores how anxious a person feels right now; lower means less anxious.
Low certaintyResults and what it means
Why it was measured
Main outcome in the exam-anxiety trial.
Statistical vs. clinical meaning
A self-rated feeling score, not a lab test.
Safety implication
A lower score does not show the oil is safe on skin or to swallow.
| Study | Result | People | Product |
|---|---|---|---|
| 17 | Lower in the bergamot group at 180 minutes on all 3 days before exams (all p < 0.0167; Cohen's d > 0.8). The trial was open-label. |
Depression Anxiety Stress Scales (DASS-21) scores
Decrease in trials
A 21-question self-rated scale for depression, anxiety and stress.
Low certaintyResults and what it means
Why it was measured
Secondary outcome in three of the trials.
Statistical vs. clinical meaning
Results differ between trials.
Safety implication
Not applicable.
Positive and Negative Affect Scale (PANAS) positive feelings
Increase in trials
A short questionnaire that scores positive and negative feelings.
Very low certaintyResults and what it means
Why it was measured
Main outcome in the waiting-room pilot.
Statistical vs. clinical meaning
One pilot, written by authors employed by an essential-oil company.
Safety implication
Not applicable.
| Study | Result | People | Product |
|---|---|---|---|
| 6 | Positive feelings were 17% higher with 15 minutes of bergamot oil than in control periods. |
Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale (EPDS) score
Decrease in trials
A 10-question self-rated screen for low mood after childbirth.
Low certaintyResults and what it means
Premenstrual Syndrome Scale (PMSS) score
Decrease in trials
A questionnaire that scores premenstrual symptoms; lower means fewer or milder symptoms.
Very low certaintyResults and what it means
Why it was measured
Main outcome in the premenstrual trial.
Statistical vs. clinical meaning
A self-rated symptom score from one trial.
Safety implication
Not applicable.
| Study | Result | People | Product |
|---|---|---|---|
| 33 | Total score lower with bergamot (p = 0.001); no effect on the Menstrual Symptom Questionnaire (p > 0.05). |
Safety
What studies and official sources say about side effects, medicines and who should check first. Each point shows what kind of evidence it comes from.
Main points to know 6
- Skin plus sunlight or a tanning bed can cause blisters and lasting dark patches.. Bergamot oil from the peel contains furocoumarins, mainly bergapten (5-MOP). A dermatology report describes two patients with blistering phototoxic reactions 48 to 72 hours after bergamot aromatherapy oil and later ultraviolet exposure. One of them had not touched the oil: the blisters followed breathing evaporated oil in a sauna and then UVA in a tanning salon. A German report describes a reaction after undiluted bergamot oil on the skin with sunlight, where blisters healed but dark patches (hyperpigmentation) and redness stayed. Berloque dermatitis, the pigment pattern caused by perfumes with bergamot, has been reported from 'Florida water' colognes. These are case reports, so they show the harm happens, not how often. Case report 7 9 18
- Bergapten with ultraviolet light is called photomutagenic and photocarcinogenic. Human skin-cancer data for bergamot oil were not found.. In hairless mice, 5-MOP in model perfumes made with bergamot oil sped up ultraviolet-induced skin tumours, with an effect seen even at 5 ppm. The authors found that 5-MOP, not other compounds in the oil, was the active agent. A 2005 EU scientific committee opinion says furocoumarins are recognized as photomutagenic and photocarcinogenic and records that the IARC classed 5-MOP plus ultraviolet radiation in group 2A (probably carcinogenic to humans) and 8-MOP plus ultraviolet radiation in group 1. We did not find a study of skin cancer in people who used bergamot oil, so the human risk from the oil itself is unknown. The concern is why regulators and the fragrance industry limit bergapten in skin products. Animal research 19 22 23
- Rules for skin products exist because of this risk.. The fragrance industry's own safety body (IFRA, 2020 Standard) restricts expressed bergamot oil and other furocoumarin oils because of phototoxicity: for most product categories the limit is 0.0015% bergapten (5-MOP) in the finished product. The EU scientific committee (2005) said total furocoumarins above 1 ppm in any finished cosmetic would be of concern. The US FDA says certain citrus oils that are safe in food can be harmful in cosmetics, particularly on skin exposed to the sun. These limits apply to manufactured products. They are not a safe level for bottled oil, and none is stated here. Regulatory 23 22 24
- Do not swallow essential oils. No bergamot-specific poisoning case was read.. Poison Control says misuse of essential oils can cause serious poisoning, that some are poisonous if swallowed or absorbed through the skin, and that choking on an oil can cause pneumonia. It describes an 18-month-old who became very drowsy after swallowing a small amount of lavender extract: that is a different oil, given as an example of toddler risk. Children have thin skin and immature livers, which might make them more sensitive. Keep all essential oils out of the reach of children and pets. Case report 25
- Earl Grey tea: one old case report of cramps and twitching; drug interactions are theory.. A 2002 Lancet letter titled 'Earl Grey tea intoxication' is indexed as a case report in an adult man, with muscle cramps, twitching (fasciculations) and vision problems, and with furocoumarins and tea tagged as adverse-effect topics. The letter has no abstract, and its details (amount of tea, timing, outcome) were not available to us. One case cannot show that the tea was the cause. Separately, bergamottin, a furanocoumarin found in bergamot oil, belongs to the grapefruit-type compounds that block the gut enzyme CYP3A4. Rat work and modelling show why this could matter for some medicines, but no human study of bergamot oil or Earl Grey tea with a medicine was found. This page covers the oil, not tea. Case report 4 20 5
- Skin allergy and irritation are possible.. The oil contains linalool, limonene and linalyl acetate. Oxidized (air-aged) linalool and limonene are known skin sensitizers: in patch-test clinics, 7.0% and 5.1% of 5,773 Swedish patients with dermatitis reacted to oxidized linalool and oxidized limonene, and in a German series of 5,511 patients 8.8% and 3.1% did. The German authors warn the test preparations can also irritate and give false positives. These are clinic populations, not the general public, and they are not tests of bergamot oil itself. Case series 15 13 11
Side effects 5
| Effect | How often | Severity and recovery | Evidence |
|---|---|---|---|
| Phototoxic skin reaction (redness, blistering) after oil on skin or evaporated oil, plus UV light Case reports and lab tests; a rate of harm is not known. Oils from different suppliers differ: two of four oils tested were photoactive by analysis (Kejlova 2007). | Not established | moderate to severe (blistering, disseminated in one report) Blisters healed in the reports read; dark patches and redness persisted in one German case | Case report 7 9 |
| Berloque dermatitis (patchy dark pigment after perfume and sun) The report says the condition is rarely seen today because of removal of these fragrances from most US cosmetics, but 'Florida water' and 'Kananga water' colognes keep some people at risk. | Not established | mild to moderate Not stated in the abstract | Case report 18 |
| Allergic contact dermatitis Clinic populations. These tests use oxidized single compounds, not bergamot oil. Poison Control says a skin rash is the most common allergic reaction to essential oils. | Oxidized linalool 7.0% and oxidized limonene 5.1% in 5,773 patch-tested Swedish patients; 8.8% and 3.1% in 5,511 German patients | Not stated in the abstracts Not stated | Case series 15 13 |
| Muscle cramps, twitching and vision problems after heavy Earl Grey tea drinking (single case) A letter without an abstract; details not read. Tea, not oil. | Not established | Not stated Not stated | Case report 4 |
| Side effects in the scent trials The exam trial reported no intervention-related adverse events; the treatment-centre trial abstract does not list side effects. Short, small trials cannot show rare harms. | Not established | none reported in the abstracts n/a | RCT 17 12 |
Liver
No liver injury from bergamot oil was found in the sources read. A LiverTox record was not checked. Poison Control says children may be more sensitive because of immature livers. 25
How often. Not established.
This is a safety connection. It is not evidence that Bergamot Oil supports liver health.
Medicines and supplements 3
| With | Why it matters | Importance | Evidence | What to do |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Medicines or treatments that make skin sensitive to light (and ultraviolet therapy) photosensitizing-medicines | Theory: another light-sensitizing agent could add to the phototoxic effect of bergapten. | No study of this was read. Psoriasis light treatment is mentioned in one trial (low-quality evidence), which shows light and bergamot oil are deliberately paired only under clinical care. | Theoretical Not enough evidence 10 7 | Tell your dermatologist or pharmacist about any bergamot oil before ultraviolet treatment, tanning or sun-sensitizing medicines. |
| Medicines broken down by CYP3A4 (for example some statins), grapefruit-type interaction cyp3a4-medicines | Furanocoumarins such as bergamottin inactivate gut CYP3A4 in grapefruit. Bergamot oil contains bergamottin (up to 2.22% in the oil, per a fragrance-industry table in the 2005 EU opinion). | In hyperlipidaemic rats, pure bergamottin (2.5 mg/kg) raised atorvastatin Cmax from 48 to 89 ng/mL and AUC from 176 to 552 h*ug/L. A human PBPK model describes bergamottin as an active grapefruit ingredient. No human study of bergamot oil, inhalation or Earl Grey tea was found. | Animal research Not enough evidence 20 5 1 22 | Ask a pharmacist before swallowing or regularly drinking anything containing bergamot if you take medicines affected by grapefruit. |
| Medicines in general general-essential-oils | Poison Control says essential oils may interact with medications. | No bergamot-specific interaction study was read. | Regulatory Not enough evidence 25 | Ask a pharmacist if you take regular medicines. |
Who should check first 4
| Situation | Advice | Evidence |
|---|---|---|
| Swallowing the oil, especially by or near children or pets | Do not swallow. If anyone may have swallowed any essential oil, call a poison center (US: Poison Help 1-800-222-1222) or your local emergency number. | Case report 25 |
| Sun, sunbeds or ultraviolet treatment after the oil has touched skin, and perfumes or oils on skin that will be in the sun | This is the documented trigger for blistering and dark patches. Ask a dermatologist or pharmacist; this page gives no safe amount or timing. | Case report 7 9 3 |
| Undiluted oil on skin, damaged skin, known fragrance or essential oil allergy, or a skin condition | Poison Control says pure essential oils are potent and not to use them on damaged skin. A German case report involved undiluted oil. Ask a clinician. | Regulatory 25 9 |
| Children and babies | No bergamot-specific safety study in children was found. Poison Control says children have thin skin and immature livers. Ask a clinician. | Regulatory 25 |
Overdose, product quality and regulators
Summary. The documented harms are skin reactions with light (case reports and lab tests), skin allergy, and the general essential-oil poisoning risk described by Poison Control. No lethal or toxic amount of bergamot oil is established in the sources read, and none is stated here.
Amounts. No safe amount is established, and this page gives none.
Onset and course. Phototoxic blistering appeared 48 to 72 hours after exposure in two reported patients; skin photosensitivity peaked about 2 hours after perfume application in a 1990 human skin test.
Repeated use. Not studied beyond case reports.
Animal data. Hairless mice: 5-MOP in model bergamot perfumes plus simulated sunlight caused skin tumours sooner, even at 5 ppm. Pets: no bergamot-specific veterinary source was read; a US animal poison centre series of 443 dog and cat cases from 100% tea tree oil (a different oil) found serious nervous-system signs, worse in smaller and younger cats. Poison Control says to keep oils away from pets.
Toxic parts. The peel oil is the concentrated form. The furocoumarins named in the sources are bergapten (5-MOP) and bergamottin.
Not read. Original toddler poisoning papers, veterinary guidance for bergamot oil, studies in asthma or lung irritation, and the full text of the Earl Grey letter.
Essential oil products are not well regulated, so the species, strength and contaminants can differ from the label (Poison Control). Photoactive oil content varies between suppliers.
Different suppliers, different phototoxicity. Of four bergamot oils from different suppliers, two had spectral and chemical features of photoactivation and were classified phototoxic in a cell test. 8
Adulteration and residues. A 2026 review says adulteration and pesticide residues in citrus essential oils are increasingly common, so reliable test methods are needed. 21
Oils with furocoumarins removed. The EU opinion records that cold-pressed citrus oils generally contain high furocoumarin levels and would have to be distilled to fall below 1 ppm. Claims on labels that an oil is 'furocoumarin-free' were not verified. 22
| Body | Action | Date |
|---|---|---|
| IFRA (International Fragrance Association; fragrance-industry body) (International (industry standard)) | Standard 'Citrus oils and other furocoumarins containing essential oils' (Amendment 49, 2020) restricts expressed bergamot oil and other furocoumarin oils because of phototoxicity: 0.0015% (5-MOP) in the finished product for most categories, and 'no restriction' for categories 7A, 9, 10A, 11A and 12. Where bergapten has been measured, total bergapten for applications on UV-exposed skin should not exceed 0.0015% (15 ppm), excluding rinse-off and incidental contact. Sum of phototoxic ingredients must not exceed 100% of their limits. source | 2020 |
| EU Scientific Committee on Consumer Products (SCCP), opinion SCCP/0942/05 (European Union) | Said furocoumarins are recognized as photomutagenic and photocarcinogenic and that total furocoumarins above 1 ppm in any finished cosmetic product would be of concern. Earlier opinions listed bergamot oil among oils usable in cosmetics only if total furocoumarin-like substances stay at or below 1 ppm. source | 2005-12-13 |
| US Food and Drug Administration (FDA): Aromatherapy (United States) | Says aromatherapy products are regulated by intended use; claims such as treating anxiety or helping you sleep are drug claims; natural does not mean safe; certain citrus oils used safely in food can be harmful in cosmetics, particularly on sun-exposed skin. source | 2023-09-08 |
| Poison Control (National Capital Poison Center; non-government) (United States) | Essential oils: misuse can cause serious poisoning; keep out of reach of children and pets; rash is the most common allergic reaction; essential oil products are not well regulated. source | 2026 |
When to get medical help
- If anyone may have swallowed any essential oil, call poison control straight away (US: Poison Help 1-800-222-1222) or your local emergency number.
- Trouble breathing, collapse, a seizure or being very hard to wake: call emergency services at once.
- Coughing or choking while swallowing oil, then fever or breathing trouble later (oil may have entered the lungs): get medical help.
- Blisters, a spreading rash, or swelling of the face or lips after oil on skin and sun or a tanning bed: wash the area, keep out of the light and get medical help.
- Muscle cramps with twitching or vision changes after drinking a lot of Earl Grey tea: stop and ask a doctor or pharmacist.
Stop using the product and contact a clinician or emergency service. In the US, Poison Control is 1-800-222-1222.
General information only, not medical advice. Ask a clinician or pharmacist before use, especially with medicines, in pregnancy or with a health condition. See the Natural Remedy Safety guide.
Frequently asked questions
Can bergamot oil burn your skin in the sun?
Yes, this is the best-documented risk. Case reports describe blistering 48 to 72 hours after bergamot aromatherapy oil and ultraviolet exposure, including one person exposed only to evaporated oil in a sauna before a tanning salon. A German report describes lasting dark patches after undiluted oil and sunlight. These are case reports, not a rate of harm.
Is bergamot oil linked to skin cancer?
There is a concern, but no human study was found. In hairless mice, 5-MOP in bergamot-oil perfumes plus simulated sunlight caused tumours sooner. A 2005 EU committee opinion says furocoumarins are recognized as photomutagenic and photocarcinogenic. The human risk from the oil itself is unknown.
What is bergapten?
What limits apply to bergamot oil in skin products?
The fragrance industry's IFRA standard (2020) sets 0.0015% bergapten (5-MOP) in the finished product for most categories and lists expressed bergamot oil among restricted oils. The 2005 EU committee said furocoumarins above 1 ppm in any finished cosmetic would be of concern. These are limits for manufactured products, not a safe level for bottled oil. A newer IFRA amendment may exist; it was not checked.
Can bergamot oil reduce stress or anxiety?
Does bergamot oil help sleep or mood?
Is bergamot oil safe to swallow?
We give no advice to swallow it. Poison Control says some essential oils are poisonous swallowed and that choking on an oil can cause pneumonia. If anyone has swallowed an essential oil, call a poison center (US 1-800-222-1222) or your local emergency number. No bergamot-specific poisoning case was read.
Is Earl Grey tea the same as bergamot oil?
No. Earl Grey is a flavoured tea, which this page does not cover. A 2002 Lancet letter indexed as a case report links heavy Earl Grey drinking to muscle cramps, twitching and vision problems, but the letter has no abstract and one case cannot show cause.
Does bergamot interact with medicines?
Possibly, but this is theory. Bergamottin, found in the oil, belongs to the grapefruit-type compounds that block the gut enzyme CYP3A4. In rats it raised atorvastatin levels about threefold. No human study of bergamot oil or Earl Grey tea with a medicine was found. Ask a pharmacist if you take medicines affected by grapefruit.
Can bergamot oil cause an allergic reaction?
It can. The oil contains linalool and limonene, whose air-oxidized forms are known skin sensitizers: in clinic patch tests, 7.0% and 5.1% of 5,773 Swedish patients reacted to oxidized linalool and limonene. These are clinic populations, not tests of bergamot oil itself. Poison Control says rash is the most common allergic reaction to essential oils.
Is bergamot oil safe in pregnancy, for children or for pets?
No bergamot-specific safety study was found for pregnancy, breastfeeding, children or pets. Poison Control says children have thin skin and immature livers and that oils must be kept out of reach of children and pets. Ask a midwife, doctor or vet.
Does bergamot oil help premenstrual symptoms?
One 2025 Turkish trial of 90 women found lower premenstrual syndrome scores after smelling bergamot oil than after placebo, with no change on the menstrual symptom scale. One trial is not enough to rely on. Certainty is very low.
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Editorial transparency
- Written by
- AlternativeMed editorial team. Research compiled with AI assistance, then checked against PubMed records.
- Medical review
- None. This page has not been reviewed by a physician or pharmacist.
- First published
- 2026-10-25
- Last substantive update
- 2026-10-25
- How we research
- We read the abstracts of 21 PubMed papers, the full IFRA standard and the EU SCCP opinion, and the FDA and Poison Control pages; we checked the plant name in GBIF and the compounds in PubChem. We did not check NCCIH, EMA, LiverTox or LactMed.
- How we rate evidence
- See "How we rate evidence" in the Evidence tab.
- Independence
- No product is promoted on this page. No affiliate links are shown. A pilot written by employees of an essential-oil company is labelled.
Sources 33
Each source was opened and checked. Where we read only the abstract, it says so. The small numbers in the text point here.
- Berteina-Raboin S. Flavonoids and Furanocoumarins Involved in Drug Interactions.. Molecules. 2025. PMID 40333661. DOI 10.3390/molecules30081676. (abstract)
- Chen ML, Chen YE, Lee HF. The Effect of Bergamot Essential Oil Aromatherapy on Improving Depressive Mood and Sleep Quality in Postpartum Women: A Randomized Controlled Trial.. J Nurs Res. 2022. PMID 34690334. DOI 10.1097/jnr.0000000000000459. (abstract)
- Dubertret L, Serraf-Tircazes D, Jeanmougin M, et al. Phototoxic properties of perfumes containing bergamot oil on human skin: photoprotective effect of UVA and UVB sunscreens.. J Photochem Photobiol B. 1990. PMID 2128327. DOI 10.1016/1011-1344(90)85160-x. (abstract)
- Finsterer J. Earl Grey tea intoxication.. Lancet. 2002. PMID 11988248. DOI 10.1016/S0140-6736(02)08436-2. (metadata)
- Fuhr LM, Marok FZ, Fuhr U, et al. Physiologically Based Pharmacokinetic Modeling of Bergamottin and 6,7-Dihydroxybergamottin to Describe CYP3A4 Mediated Grapefruit-Drug Interactions.. Clin Pharmacol Ther. 2023. PMID 37307228. DOI 10.1002/cpt.2968. (abstract)
- Han X, Gibson J, Eggett DL, Parker TL. Bergamot (Citrus bergamia) Essential Oil Inhalation Improves Positive Feelings in the Waiting Room of a Mental Health Treatment Center: A Pilot Study.. Phytother Res. 2017. PMID 28337799. DOI 10.1002/ptr.5806. (abstract)
- Kaddu S, Kerl H, Wolf P. Accidental bullous phototoxic reactions to bergamot aromatherapy oil.. J Am Acad Dermatol. 2001. PMID 11511848. DOI 10.1067/mjd.2001.116226. (abstract)
- Kejlová K, Jírová D, Bendová H, et al. Phototoxicity of bergamot oil assessed by in vitro techniques in combination with human patch tests.. Toxicol In Vitro. 2007. PMID 17669618. DOI 10.1016/j.tiv.2007.05.016. (abstract)
- Knott E, Hofmann H. [Purely natural: phototoxic dermatitis] (German case report).. MMW Fortschr Med. 2007. PMID 17619401. (abstract)
- Mannucci C, Navarra M, Calapai F, et al. Clinical Pharmacology of Citrus bergamia: A Systematic Review.. Phytother Res. 2017. PMID 27747942. DOI 10.1002/ptr.5734. (abstract)
- Melliou E, Michaelakis A, Koliopoulos G, et al. High quality bergamot oil from Greece: Chemical analysis using chiral gas chromatography and larvicidal activity against the West Nile virus vector.. Molecules. 2009. PMID 19255543. DOI 10.3390/molecules14020839. (abstract)
- Reven ME, Carpenter R, Smith MJ, et al. Using an aromatherapy intervention with Citrus bergamia (bergamot) essential oil in adults in treatment for substance use disorder: A randomized controlled trial.. Int J Nurs Sci. 2025. PMID 40786851. DOI 10.1016/j.ijnss.2025.04.011. (abstract)
- Schubert S, Geier J, Brans R, et al. Patch testing hydroperoxides of limonene and linalool in consecutive patients-Results of the IVDK 2018-2020.. Contact Dermatitis. 2023. PMID 37177844. DOI 10.1111/cod.14332. (abstract)
- Scuteri D, Rombolà L, Hayashi T, et al. Analgesic Characteristics of NanoBEO Released by an Airless Dispenser for the Control of Agitation in Severe Dementia.. Molecules. 2022. PMID 35956935. DOI 10.3390/molecules27154987. (abstract)
- Sukakul T, Bruze M, Mowitz M, et al. Contact allergy to oxidized linalool and oxidized limonene: Patch testing in consecutive patients with dermatitis.. Contact Dermatitis. 2022. PMID 34561893. DOI 10.1111/cod.13980. (abstract)
- Wakui N, Togawa C, Ichikawa K, et al. Relieving psychological stress and improving sleep quality by bergamot essential oil use before bedtime and upon awakening: A randomized crossover trial.. Complement Ther Med. 2023. PMID 37625623. DOI 10.1016/j.ctim.2023.102976. (abstract)
- Wakui N, Kagi H, Hirota Y, et al. Evaluation of the Anxiety-Reducing Effects of Aroma Stones with Bergamot Essential Oil before Examinations: A Randomized Controlled Trial.. J Integr Complement Med. 2026. PMID 42755326. DOI 10.1177/27683605261488658. (abstract)
- Wang L, Sterling B, Don P. Berloque dermatitis induced by 'Florida water'.. Cutis. 2002. PMID 12184670. (abstract)
- Young AR, Walker SL, Kinley JS, et al. Phototumorigenesis studies of 5-methoxypsoralen in bergamot oil: evaluation and modification of risk of human use in an albino mouse skin model.. J Photochem Photobiol B. 1990. PMID 2128326. DOI 10.1016/1011-1344(90)85159-t. (abstract)
- Zhang X, Guo J, Li J, et al. Pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamic interaction of bergamottin with atorvastatin in rats.. Xenobiotica. 2022. PMID 35699169. DOI 10.1080/00498254.2022.2090301. (abstract)
- Zhang Y, Luo R, Yang R, et al. Citrus Essential Oils: A Review of Chemical Composition, Bioactivity, Safe Use, and Potential Applications.. Chem Biodivers. 2026. PMID 42105350. DOI 10.1002/cbdv.71305. (abstract)
- n/a. EU SCCP opinion SCCP/0942/05: Furocoumarins in cosmetic products, adopted 13 December 2005, read 2026-10-25. n/a. 2005. (full-text)
- n/a. IFRA Standard: Citrus oils and other furocoumarins containing essential oils, Amendment 49 (2020), read 2026-10-25. n/a. 2020. (full-text)
- n/a. FDA: Aromatherapy (cosmetic products), content current as of 09/08/2023, read 2026-10-25. n/a. 2023. (full-text)
- n/a. Poison Control (National Capital Poison Center): Essential oils: Poisonous when misused (read 2026-10-25). n/a. 2026. (full-text)
- n/a. NCCIH, EMA/HMPC, LiverTox, LactMed, WHO for bergamot oil (not checked, 2026-10-25). n/a. 2026. (full-text)
- n/a. GBIF Backbone Taxonomy: Citrus bergamia match (GBIF match API, read 2026-10-25). n/a. 2026. (full-text)
- n/a. PubChem: Bergapten, CID 2355 (PUG REST, read 2026-10-25). n/a. 2026. (full-text)
- n/a. PubChem: Bergamottin, CID 5471349 (PUG REST name lookup, read 2026-10-25). n/a. 2026. (full-text)
- n/a. PubChem: Linalyl acetate, CID 8294 (PUG REST, read 2026-10-25). n/a. 2026. (full-text)
- n/a. PubChem: Linalool, CID 6549 (PUG REST, read 2026-10-25). n/a. 2026. (full-text)
- n/a. PubChem: Limonene, CID 22311 (PUG REST, read 2026-10-25). n/a. 2026. (full-text)
- Özer E, Döner Şİ, Dağ Tüzmen H. The effect of aromatherapy intervention with Bergamot and Grapefruit essential oils on premenstrual syndrome and menstrual symptoms: a randomized controlled trial.. BMC Complement Med Ther. 2025. PMID 40312670. DOI 10.1186/s12906-025-04857-3. (abstract)
Where to buy
Check the label first. Whatever you buy, look for these:
- The botanical (Latin) name on the label and 100% pure oil
- A dark glass bottle and a batch number
- Essential oils are strong: dilute for skin, and do not swallow unless a qualified professional directs it
- Keep away from children and pets
Talk to a pharmacist or doctor before you start any supplement, especially if you take medicines. See the Safety tab for interactions.
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