Vegetables · Vegetable
Cassava (Yuca)
Manihot esculenta · also called Yuca, manioc (tapioca is the starch from the root)
Cassava is a starchy root eaten as a staple food in tropical regions. Never eat it raw: the raw root and poorly processed cassava or cassava flour can release cyanide, which has caused poisoning outbreaks and a lasting leg paralysis called konzo. Properly processed cassava is a normal staple. It is a source of energy, with some vitamin C and potassium, but little protein, and we found no trial showing health benefits from eating ordinary cassava.
General information, not medical advice. Last substantive update · Not medically reviewed. A named clinician has not signed off on this page. How this page is made
About Cassava (Yuca)
Cassava is a staple root that feeds many people, but it is not safe raw and poorly processed products have caused poisoning. Properly processed cassava is energy food, not a proven remedy.
Safety first: cyanide
Raw cassava contains natural chemicals (cyanogenic glycosides) that release cyanide. WHO names cassava among the important foods with these chemicals and lists the signs of acute poisoning: fast breathing, dizziness, headache, stomach pain, vomiting, confusion, twitching, convulsions and coma.
EFSA calculated that for raw cassava at the highest cyanide level it found in European shops (235 mg per kg), about 1 g can reach its acute safety limit for a toddler and about 6 g for an adult. EFSA also reports 70 people hospitalised in a Mozambique outbreak linked to bitter cassava.
Flour can also be a problem: in 2017, 33 people in Uganda were admitted to hospital after a funeral meal made from a batch of cassava flour with high cyanogenic content.
If someone feels ill after eating cassava, with fast breathing, repeated vomiting, confusion or convulsions, call emergency services or a poison centre.
What processing does and does not do
EFSA says boiling, steaming, baking or frying whole fresh roots or root pieces is not very effective, usually leaving 50% or more of the cyanide. Breaking up the root cells (grating, crushing, pounding), soaking for days, fermenting and roasting can remove more than 90%. Traditional gari and fufu keep about 2%.
A 'wetting method' for cassava flour is promoted in Africa. A 2014 follow-up report from one village in the Democratic Republic of Congo found no new konzo cases and a mean flour cyanide of 9 ppm. It was a small field report, not a controlled trial.
This page gives no recipe. Follow the preparation your local food-safety authority gives for the kind of cassava you have.
Konzo and the thyroid
Konzo is a permanent weakness and stiffness of both legs that affects mostly children and women of childbearing age in parts of Africa. It is linked to a monotonous diet of insufficiently processed bitter cassava, usually with too little protein. There is no cure.
Reviews call cassava cyanide and protein malnutrition well-documented risk factors but say studies have not shown that cyanide alone causes konzo.
EFSA says cassava thiocyanate can interfere with iodine uptake in the thyroid, and thyroid problems have been reported only with poorly detoxified cassava, iodine deficiency and low protein.
What it is and what is in it
Cassava (Manihot esculenta, also called yuca or manioc) is a tropical root crop in the spurge family. Tapioca is the starch from the root.
USDA data for raw root, per 100 g: 160 kcal, 1.36 g protein, 38.1 g carbohydrate, 1.8 g fibre, 20.6 mg vitamin C, 271 mg potassium, 0.384 mg manganese and 27 micrograms folate (DFE). It has almost no vitamin A. These are raw values; cooked and processed products differ.
What the research shows
Two randomised trials in African children found that foods made from yellow, beta-carotene cassava raised blood retinol modestly compared with white cassava.
Tests of how fast cassava foods raise blood sugar used lab models and healthy adults. No trial in people with diabetes was found.
A small trial of a manufactured tapioca fibre ingredient and a review of lab studies of extracts do not tell us about eating cassava.
Amounts
This page gives no amounts to eat. Ask a doctor, pharmacist or dietitian what is right for you, especially if cassava is a main food, you are pregnant, or you have a thyroid condition.
At a glance
Traditional uses history, not proof
- Eaten as a staple starchy root, only after cooking or processing
- Made into flour, gari, fufu and tapioca starch
- Long use as food is not proof that it treats any condition
Studied for research
- Staple food energy, vitamin C and potassium, high certainty for the nutrient values, no health trial
- Yellow (biofortified) cassava and blood vitamin A in children, moderate certainty, small effect
- Blood sugar response of cassava foods, insufficient evidence (lab and healthy-adult tests)
- Tapioca resistant maltodextrin (an ingredient), very low certainty
- Lab claims for extracts (anti-diabetic, anti-cancer), insufficient evidence
Main compounds
- Starch
- Linamarin (cyanogenic glycoside)
- Vitamin C
- Potassium
- Manganese
- Beta-carotene (yellow varieties only)
Common forms
- Boiled or cooked cassava root as food (cooking alone does not remove most cyanide from whole root pieces)
- Traditionally processed gari and fufu (grating or soaking, fermenting, roasting or drying)
- Cassava flour
- Tapioca starch and pearls
- Tapioca resistant maltodextrin (a manufactured ingredient, not the vegetable)
Research links: WHO: Natural toxins in food · EFSA 2019: cyanogenic glycosides in foods · MMWR: cyanide poisoning from cassava flour, Uganda 2017 · Research Library · Genes & Biomarkers Library
What it is and its history
- Accepted scientific name
- Manihot esculenta
- Naming authority
- Crantz (GBIF accepted)
- Common names
- Cassava (English); Yuca (Spanish); Manioc (English)
- Family or group
- Euphorbiaceae (the spurge family), as given by GBIF.
- Classification
- Plantae > Tracheophyta > Magnoliopsida > Malpighiales > Euphorbiaceae > Manihot > Manihot esculenta
- Native range
- Not verified from a source read.
- Habitat
- Not verified from a source read. The Uganda outbreak report says cassava is resistant to drought, diseases and pests.
- What it looks like
- Roots: The edible part is the starchy root (a tuberous root). USDA lists portions of 206 g and 408 g for raw root.; Stems: Not verified.; Leaves: Leaves are also eaten in some regions; EFSA says they hold more protein, minerals and vitamins than the root but need detoxifying.; Flowers: Not verified.; Fruit: Not verified.
- Cultivation
- Not verified from a source read, beyond the statement that it is a major source of carbohydrate in tropical areas and the second most widely grown and eaten food in Uganda after bananas (MMWR 2019).
- Harvest and processing
- Traditional processing in West Africa and elsewhere combines grating or pounding, soaking, fermenting and roasting or drying to make gari, fufu and flour; these steps remove most of the cyanide (EFSA). Bitter and sweet varieties differ; Codex calls cassava under 50 mg total cyanide per kg 'sweet' (via EFSA).
- Look-alikes and adulterants
- Name: Yams, sweet potatoes, taro and jicama; Note: Other root and tuber foods with their own pages or none. They are different plants; the cyanide safety rules on this page are about cassava.; Name: Tapioca (starch and pearls); Note: Starch from the cassava root. Cyanide data for tapioca pearls were not found in the sources read.
- Sustainability and conservation
- Not assessed.
Photographs
Traditional use and history history, not clinical proof
| Tradition or era | Documented use | Source |
|---|---|---|
| Staple food in tropical regions | The 2019 Uganda outbreak report describes cassava as a drought-, disease- and pest-resistant root that is a major source of carbohydrate in tropical areas and a staple for about 57% of Uganda's population. | p30946738 |
| First description of konzo, 1938 | A 2014 field report says konzo was discovered in 1938 by Dr G. Trolli in the Democratic Republic of Congo, and that it first came under control in one village in 2011 with the flour wetting method. | p24791576 |
| Origin and early history of cassava | Not researched; no source read describes where or when cassava was first grown. | NOT verified (no source read) |
Traditional use shows how it was used. It does not show that it works or is safe today.
What is inside, and how it may work
What it contains and how those compounds act in cells and animals. Laboratory and animal mechanisms are not proven effects in people.
Main compounds
| Compound | Family | Where it is concentrated | Activity studied | Level of evidence |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Linamarin PubChem 11128 | cyanogenic glycoside | Root and leaves Total cyanide in raw sweet cassava sold in Denmark: 11 to 235 mg per kg (EFSA table) | The main cassava cyanogen; releases cyanide when the root is damaged (2019 konzo review; EFSA). 7 14 16 | Human data |
| Lotaustralin PubChem 441467 | cyanogenic glycoside | Not stated Not given in the sources read | A second cyanogenic glycoside; named in EFSA's search terms for cyanogens. Its content in cassava was not read. 14 16 | Lab |
| Starch (including resistant starch) | carbohydrate | Root USDA: 38.1 g carbohydrate per 100 g raw root. Resistant starch in fufu measured at 1.1 to 2.1 g per 100 g (lab). | Energy source; part resists digestion. Glycemic index varies with processing. 17 11 | Lab |
| Vitamin C (ascorbic acid) | vitamin | Root USDA: 20.6 mg per 100 g raw root | A nutrient the root supplies in modest amounts; cooking and processing change it. 17 | Human data |
| Beta-carotene (yellow varieties only) | carotenoid | Root of yellow varieties Kenyan trial: about 1,460 micrograms of beta-carotene per day from the yellow cassava eaten | Provitamin A; raised blood retinol modestly in children. White cassava has almost none (USDA lists 8 micrograms beta-carotene per 100 g raw). 6 10 17 | Human data |
Mechanisms, receptors and pathways
| Target or pathway | Gene or receptor | What was found | Level |
|---|---|---|---|
| Cyanide release from linamarin | Linamarase enzyme (named in EFSA's text) | When plant cells are broken, the enzyme linamarase breaks down linamarin to release cyanide. Heat inactivates the enzyme but leaves the linamarin in whole roots, which is why simple boiling is not very effective (EFSA). 14 | Human data |
| Cyanide metabolites and konzo | Not specified | The 2019 review says cyanide, thiocyanate and cyanate may play a role, and that how konzo arises is still unknown; the 2021 review adds nutrition and other factors may interact. 7 12 | Human data |
| Thiocyanate and iodide uptake in the thyroid | Not specified | Thiocyanate is similar in size to iodide and interferes with its uptake into the thyroid (EFSA). 14 | Human data |
Absorption, metabolism and elimination
- Absorption
- EFSA says cyanide release from raw cassava root is fast and nearly complete after chewing, so peak levels are high; other foods release it more slowly.
- Distribution
- Not found.
- Metabolism
- The body turns cyanide into thiocyanate; the 2021 review says more cyanide may be cleared by other routes in protein malnutrition, which can make thiocyanate underestimate exposure.
- Elimination
- Urine thiocyanate is used as a marker of cyanide exposure (konzo reviews; the wetting-method report).
- Bioavailability
- Not established for most cassava nutrients in the sources read.
Isolated compounds versus whole extracts
The tapioca resistant maltodextrin trial tested a manufactured fibre ingredient and the pharmacology review covers extracts, so neither tells us about eating cassava. The yellow cassava trials fed whole cassava foods, but of specific bred varieties. Flour, gari, fufu and starch are different products from the root, and their cyanide level depends on processing.
Nutritional composition
Nutrition from USDA FoodData Central (Cassava, raw, FDC 169985, SR Legacy, last updated 4/1/2019, read 2026-10-26). Per 100 g of raw root: 160 kcal, 1.36 g protein, 0.28 g fat, 38.1 g carbohydrate, 1.8 g fibre, 1.7 g sugars, about 60 g water, 16 mg calcium, 0.27 mg iron, 21 mg magnesium, 271 mg potassium, 14 mg sodium, 20.6 mg vitamin C, 0.384 mg manganese, 0.1 mg copper, 27 micrograms folate (DFE), 0.087 mg thiamin, 0.088 mg vitamin B6, 1.9 micrograms vitamin K, and only 1 microgram vitamin A (RAE). A 206 g portion of raw root (a portion size listed by USDA) holds about 330 kcal, 2.8 g protein, 78 g carbohydrate, 3.7 g fibre, 558 mg potassium, 42 mg vitamin C, 0.8 mg manganese and 56 micrograms folate (calculated by us from the per 100 g values). Values vary with variety and are for the raw root; cooked, fried, flour, gari and starch values were not read, and the root must not be eaten raw.
1 high certainty1 moderate certainty1 very low certainty2 not enough evidence
What was looked at
The 5 benefits and uses checked for Cassava (Yuca), each with how strong the evidence is. Tap one to open it.
- A starchy staple food: energy, vitamin C, manganese and potassiumHigh certainty
- Yellow (biofortified) cassava and vitamin A status in childrenModerate certainty
- Blood sugar response (glycemic index) of cassava foodsNot enough evidence
- Tapioca resistant maltodextrin (a manufactured fibre ingredient, not the vegetable)Very low certainty
- Traditional and lab claims (anti-diabetic, anti-cancer, anti-inflammatory)Not enough evidence
Lab markers tracked in the studies
Serum retinol (blood vitamin A)Haemoglobin (blood level)Blood glucose and insulin after a test drink
What is Cassava (Yuca) good for?
The main studied uses and how strong the human evidence is for each. The safety cautions on the Safety tab come first for this food. Many results below are for specific bred varieties, lab models or manufactured ingredients, not for eating ordinary cassava.
Benefits, one by one
Each card is a research question, not a promise. Tap a goal to filter. Open a card to see the studies, doses and limits.
A starchy staple food: energy, vitamin C, manganese and potassium
High certaintyCassava root is mostly starch. USDA lists 160 kcal and 38 g of carbohydrate per 100 g of raw root, with 20.6 mg of vitamin C, 271 mg of potassium and 0.38 mg of manganese. It has little protein (1.4 g per 100 g). This is a nutrient fact about the root, not a trial. The root must be processed or cooked first, and the Safety tab explains why that matters.
2 studiesRaw root values only. Flour, gari, fufu and tapioca starch differ and…
Studies, doses and limits
What the trials found
USDA FoodData Central lists, per 100 g of raw root: 160 kcal, 1.36 g protein, 0.28 g fat, 38.1 g carbohydrate, 1.8 g fibre, 20.6 mg vitamin C, 0.384 mg manganese, 0.1 mg copper, 271 mg potassium and 27 micrograms of folate (DFE). The same record lists almost no vitamin A (1 microgram RAE) or vitamin K (1.9 micrograms).
Results
Cassava is an energy food with some vitamin C, manganese and potassium. No trial of eating cassava for any health outcome in adults was read.
Effect sizes as reported
USDA, per 100 g raw root: 160 kcal; 20.6 mg vitamin C; 271 mg potassium; 1.36 g protein.
Why this rating
High for the nutrient values (USDA laboratory data for the raw root). These are not health outcomes, and cooking and processing change the values.
Form and dose studied
Raw root values only. Flour, gari, fufu and tapioca starch differ and were not read.
Who was studied
People who eat cassava as a staple, mostly in tropical regions.
Limits
Nutrient facts, not a trial. Cooked and processed values were not read. Cassava is low in protein, so it does not supply a full diet alone.
Why researchers looked
Cassava feeds many people in the tropics, so its nutrient content matters. A Ugandan outbreak report says it is a staple for about 57% of the population there.
Traditional use
Cassava root is a staple food in tropical regions, eaten only after cooking or processing. Long use as food is not proof that it treats any condition.
Proposed mechanism Authoritative guidance
Starch supplies energy. Vitamin C and manganese are supplied in small amounts by the root (USDA).
A proposed mechanism does not show that the effect happens in people.
Raw or badly processed cassava can release cyanide. See the Safety tab before anything else.
Yellow (biofortified) cassava and vitamin A status in children
Moderate certaintyOrdinary white cassava has almost no vitamin A. Yellow varieties bred to carry beta-carotene were tested in two randomised trials in African children. In both, blood retinol (the blood measure of vitamin A) rose a little: by 0.04 micromol per litre in Kenya and 0.06 in Nigeria. The effects were small, and these are specific bred varieties, not the cassava on most shop shelves.
2 studiesFoods made from specific yellow (provitamin A) varieties, eaten daily…
Studies, doses and limits
What the trials found
Kenya: 342 schoolchildren aged 5-13 with marginal vitamin A status were randomised for 18.5 weeks to white cassava plus placebo, yellow cassava plus placebo, or white cassava plus a beta-carotene supplement. Average cassava intake was about 371 to 378 g a day. Yellow cassava and the supplement each raised serum retinol by 0.04 micromol/L (95% CI 0.00 to 0.07) and raised serum beta-carotene a lot; haemoglobin did not change. Nigeria: 176 children aged 3-5 were given foods made from yellow or white cassava twice a day, six days a week, for 93 days in an open-label trial. Serum retinol rose by 0.06 micromol/L (95% CI 0.004 to 0.124) and haemoglobin by 3.08 g/L (95% CI 0.38 to 5.78).
Results
Both trials found a modest rise in blood retinol from yellow cassava compared with white cassava. Haemoglobin rose in the Nigerian trial but not in the Kenyan one.
Effect sizes as reported
Serum retinol: +0.04 micromol/L (Kenya, CI 0.00 to 0.07); +0.06 micromol/L (Nigeria, CI 0.004 to 0.124). Haemoglobin: no effect (Kenya); +3.08 g/L (Nigeria).
Why this rating
Two randomised trials in children point the same way for retinol, but the effects are small, the groups were children with marginal vitamin A status, one trial was open-label, and neither measured illness. Authors of the Kenyan trial are linked to the biofortification programme; the funder is not in the abstract.
Form and dose studied
Foods made from specific yellow (provitamin A) varieties, eaten daily over weeks. Not ordinary shop cassava.
Who was studied
Children aged 3 to 13 in Kenya and Nigeria with marginal vitamin A status.
Limits
Blood retinol is a measure, not a health outcome. Results may not apply to adults, other varieties or well-fed populations. The yellow varieties still need proper processing for safety.
Why researchers looked
Vitamin A shortage is a public health problem in sub-Saharan Africa, and cassava is already eaten daily there.
Traditional use
Cassava root is a staple food in tropical regions, eaten only after cooking or processing. Long use as food is not proof that it treats any condition.
Proposed mechanism Controlled trial
Yellow varieties contain beta-carotene, which the body can turn into vitamin A (stated in the Kenyan trial abstract: provitamin A).
A proposed mechanism does not show that the effect happens in people.
Yellow cassava is still cassava. Cyanide safety rules apply (see the Safety tab). Vitamin A shortage needs a clinician's advice.
Blood sugar response (glycemic index) of cassava foods
Not enough evidenceHow fast a cassava food raises blood sugar depends on how it is made. A lab study predicted a glycemic index of 54 to 67 for gari dough and slower sugar release from fufu. In a small test in healthy adults, attieke (a fermented cassava food) scored 63 while most other staples tested were above 70. No trial in people with diabetes was read, so this does not show cassava helps blood sugar.
2 studiesFufu, gari dough, attieke, placali and pounded cassava-plantain: proc…
Studies, doses and limits
What the trials found
Lab study (Eyinla 2021): fufu had the highest resistant starch (1.1 to 2.1 g per 100 g); gari dough had the highest rapidly digestible starch (1.1 to 1.4 g per 100 g) and predicted glycemic index (54 to 67). Healthy adults (Kouame 2015) ate 50 g available-carbohydrate portions of five staples: attieke had a glycemic index of 63 and a high glycemic load of 29; most other foods tested had a glycemic index above 70, and placali had a glycemic load of 17.
Results
Glycemic index varies with the cassava product. The values come from a lab model and from a small test in healthy people, not from trials of diabetes.
Effect sizes as reported
Predicted glycemic index of gari dough 54 to 67 (lab). Attieke glycemic index 63, glycemic load 29 (healthy adults).
Why this rating
One lab study and one small test in healthy adults. Neither measured diabetes, long-term blood sugar or health outcomes.
Form and dose studied
Fufu, gari dough, attieke, placali and pounded cassava-plantain: processed traditional foods, not plain boiled root.
Who was studied
Healthy adults (human test); no one with diabetes.
Limits
Predicted values are from a lab model. The abstracts do not say how many people were tested in the human study. Processing differs between kitchens.
Why researchers looked
Diabetes is rising in places where cassava is a staple, so researchers ask how cassava foods affect blood sugar.
Traditional use
Cassava root is a staple food in tropical regions, eaten only after cooking or processing. Long use as food is not proof that it treats any condition.
Proposed mechanism Laboratory research
Starch that is digested slowly or resists digestion releases glucose more slowly. The lab study measured resistant starch of 1.1 to 2.1 g per 100 g in fufu.
A proposed mechanism does not show that the effect happens in people.
A person with diabetes should ask their care team before changing staple foods.
Tapioca resistant maltodextrin (a manufactured fibre ingredient, not the vegetable)
Very low certaintyA small trial gave 16 healthy adults drinks made with 50 g of different starch products. The drink with tapioca resistant maltodextrin, a fibre-like ingredient made from tapioca starch, gave a lower blood sugar and insulin rise than glucose. A 50 g dose caused flatulence. This ingredient is not the cassava root, so the result says nothing about eating cassava.
1 studiesManufactured ingredient in a drink (tested at 50 g). Not a food you c…
Studies, doses and limits
What the trials found
Randomised cross-over trial in 16 healthy adults, five treatments on five days, glucose and insulin measured for 180 minutes. At 30 minutes plasma glucose was 104.6 mg/dl after tapioca resistant maltodextrin versus 135.9 after glucose (P<0.001); serum insulin was 13.0 versus 47.9 microIU/ml (P=0.013). Appetite did not differ. A single 50 g dose of the ingredient caused flatulence (P<0.05).
Results
Lower blood glucose and insulin than glucose within 30 minutes in healthy adults, with gas at a high single dose.
Effect sizes as reported
Glucose at 30 min: 104.6 vs 135.9 mg/dl (glucose drink). Insulin at 30 min: 13.0 vs 47.9 microIU/ml.
Why this rating
One small short cross-over trial in healthy people, of an ingredient and not of cassava as food.
Form and dose studied
Manufactured ingredient in a drink (tested at 50 g). Not a food you cook from the root.
Who was studied
16 healthy adults.
Limits
Single small trial; no people with diabetes; the funder was not in the abstract; does not apply to the vegetable.
Why researchers looked
Resistant maltodextrin is studied as a fibre ingredient that is only partly digested.
Traditional use
This is a modern food-industry ingredient, not a traditional food.
Proposed mechanism Controlled trial
The authors say tapioca resistant maltodextrin has low digestibility in the small intestine, so less glucose is absorbed.
A proposed mechanism does not show that the effect happens in people.
The trial reported flatulence at the 50 g dose.
Traditional and lab claims (anti-diabetic, anti-cancer, anti-inflammatory)
Not enough evidenceA 2023 systematic review of 34 studies reports many activities for cassava extracts and compounds, including anti-bacterial, anti-cancer, anti-diabetic, anti-inflammatory and cholesterol-lowering effects. Its authors say more work is needed to confirm them. We did not find a human trial of these uses, and an extract is not the food.
1 studiesExtracts and isolated compounds in the lab.
Studies, doses and limits
Results
Many activities are reported for extracts in the lab. Nothing here shows a benefit from eating cassava.
Effect sizes as reported
Not given in the abstract.
Why this rating
Lab and extract findings only as far as the abstract shows; the review's authors themselves say confirmation is needed.
Form and dose studied
Extracts and isolated compounds in the lab.
Limits
Only the abstract was read, so we cannot say how many of the 34 studies involved people.
Why researchers looked
Cassava is also a traditional medicine in places where it is a staple, so reviewers collected the lab and traditional findings.
Traditional use
The review lists traditional uses of cassava; the abstract does not describe them in detail.
Proposed mechanism Systematic review
The review links activities to compounds in cassava extracts. The abstract does not say which tests were done in animals, cells or people.
A proposed mechanism does not show that the effect happens in people.
Do not use cassava extracts as a remedy. Raw cassava parts can release cyanide (Safety tab).
Connections to the rest of health
How Cassava (Yuca) connects to the rest of our health knowledge graph. Every link says what kind of connection it is. A safety link (for example to the liver) is a warning, not a benefit. A study that merely mentions a topic never creates a benefit link.
Explore every connection: goals, body systems, organs, symptoms, genes
B. Body systems
| Connected to | Kind of connection | Evidence status | Context | Studies |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Digestive System | Biological association | High certainty | Studied for: A starchy staple food: energy, vitamin C, manganese and potassium Studied for: Tapioca resistant maltodextrin (a manufactured fibre ingredient, not the vegetable) | 17 8 9 |
| Blood And Immune | Biological association | Moderate certainty | Studied for: Yellow (biofortified) cassava and vitamin A status in children | 6 10 |
| Endocrine System | Biological association | Not enough evidence | Studied for: Blood sugar response (glycemic index) of cassava foods Studied for: Tapioca resistant maltodextrin (a manufactured fibre ingredient, not the vegetable) | 11 5 9 |
C. Body parts and organs
| Connected to | Kind of connection | Evidence status | Context | Studies |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Nervous system | Adverse effect or risk | Documented risk | Konzo is a permanent leg paralysis linked to long-term reliance on poorly processed bitter cassava. Konzo is linked to long-term reliance on poorly processed bitter cassava. Preparation or compound: Insufficiently processed bitter cassava (cyanide) |
7 12 |
| Thyroid | Drug or supplement interaction | Documented risk | Can add to iodine deficiency; reported only with poor processing, low iodine and low protein. Cassava thiocyanate can add to iodine deficiency. Preparation or compound: Cassava cyanide (thiocyanate) |
14 |
I. Biomarkers
| Connected to | Kind of connection | Evidence status | Context | Studies |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Serum retinol (blood vitamin A) | Biological association | Moderate certainty | Measured in trials: raised. A lab change is not the same as a health benefit. | 6 10 |
| Haemoglobin (blood level) | Biological association | Mixed findings | Measured in trials: mixed. A lab change is not the same as a health benefit. | 6 10 |
| Blood glucose and insulin after a test drink | Biological association | Very low certainty | Measured in trials: lowered. A lab change is not the same as a health benefit. | 9 |
K. Biological pathways
| Connected to | Kind of connection | Evidence status | Context | Studies |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Vitamin A (via beta-carotene) | Preliminary mechanism | Human | Yellow varieties raised blood retinol in two trials in children; white cassava has almost none. | 6 10 |
| Iodine | Preliminary mechanism | Human | Cassava thiocyanate can add to iodine deficiency; thyroid effects reported only with poor processing, low iodine and low protein. | 14 |
| Vitamin C | Preliminary mechanism | Human | The raw root holds 20.6 mg per 100 g (USDA). | 17 |
L. Active compounds
| Connected to | Kind of connection | Evidence status | Context | Studies |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Linamarin | Documented risk | The main cassava cyanogen; releases cyanide (named in the 2019 konzo review). Preparation or compound: Raw cassava |
7 | |
| Linamarin | Biological association | Human | The main cassava cyanogen; releases cyanide when the root is damaged (2019 konzo review; EFSA). Preparation or compound: Root and leaves |
7 14 16 |
| Lotaustralin | Biological association | Lab | A second cyanogenic glycoside; named in EFSA's search terms for cyanogens. Its content in cassava was not read. | 14 16 |
| Starch (including resistant starch) | Biological association | Lab | Energy source; part resists digestion. Glycemic index varies with processing. Preparation or compound: Root |
17 11 |
| Vitamin C (ascorbic acid) | Biological association | Human | A nutrient the root supplies in modest amounts; cooking and processing change it. Preparation or compound: Root |
17 |
| Beta-carotene (yellow varieties only) | Biological association | Human | Provitamin A; raised blood retinol modestly in children. White cassava has almost none (USDA lists 8 micrograms beta-carotene per 100 g raw). Preparation or compound: Root of yellow varieties |
6 10 17 |
Each connection is stored with the ingredient, the connected record, the kind of connection, the evidence status, the supporting studies, the preparation or compound involved, and a review date (last reviewed October 26, 2026).
Evidence at a glance: what changed in 3 lab markers
Tap a number to show only those markers. Counts are markers, not people.
The evidence
The research centre for Cassava (Yuca). Every record here was checked against PubMed or the publisher's page; we never list a study we have not verified.
Evidence by outcome
Bars show how many studies we found for each outcome, not how well it works. People are added up across trials only (reviews are not added, to avoid double counting).
How we rate evidence
High certainty
Several well-run trials or reviews agree; further research is unlikely to change the picture much.
Moderate certainty
Good trials point the same way, but some doubt remains.
Low certainty
Small, short or inconsistent trials. The finding could change with better research.
Very low certainty
Very little or very weak human data. Treat as a possibility only.
Mixed findings
Trials or reviews disagree with each other.
Not enough evidence
Not enough human research to say either way.
Evidence against
Good research found no benefit, or found harm.
We take the reviewers' own risk-of-bias and GRADE statements where they exist, and otherwise judge from study size, design, consistency, directness and whether a product matches what is sold. Many publications do not make evidence high. Method note: We started from our existing cassava summary, re-checked nutrition at USDA FoodData Central, read the WHO fact sheet and the full text of the 2019 EFSA opinion, and read PubMed abstracts for the trials and reviews cited. Two allergy papers had no abstract, so only their titles were read. Items we could not verify are flagged in the research gaps.
Study library: every study we checked 18
| Study | Design | People | Product, dose, length | Result |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| p12823136 Anaphylactic reaction to manioc: cross-reactivity to latex · Source |
Case report |
Methods, limits and fundingRead: title-only | ||
| p20654676 Konzo and continuing cyanide intoxication from cassava in Mozambique · Source |
Narrative review |
Methods, limits and fundingRead: abstract | ||
| p21855976 Allergic reactions to manioc (Manihot esculenta Crantz): identification of novel allergens with potential involvement in latex-fruit syndrome · Source |
Other |
Methods, limits and fundingRead: title-only | ||
| p24791576 Effectiveness of wetting method for control of konzo and reduction of cyanide poisoning by removal of cyanogens from cassava flour · Source |
Other |
Methods, limits and fundingRead: abstract | ||
| p25690417 Glycaemic index and load values tested in normoglycemic adults for five staple foodstuffs: pounded yam, pounded cassava-plantain, placali, attieke and maize meal stiff porridge · Source |
Other |
Methods, limits and fundingRead: abstract | ||
| p26675768 Biofortified yellow cassava and vitamin A status of Kenyan children: a randomized controlled trial · Source |
Controlled trial |
Methods, limits and fundingRead: abstract | ||
| p29981837 Konzo: a distinct neurological disease associated with food (cassava) cyanogenic poisoning · Source |
Narrative review |
Methods, limits and fundingRead: abstract | ||
| p30946738 Outbreak of Cyanide Poisoning Caused by Consumption of Cassava Flour - Kasese District, Uganda, September 2017 · Source |
Case series |
Methods, limits and fundingRead: abstract | ||
| p32742646 Attenuation of glycaemic and insulin responses following tapioca resistant maltodextrin consumption in healthy subjects: a randomised cross-over controlled trial · Source |
Controlled trial |
Methods, limits and fundingRead: abstract | ||
| p33184647 Daily consumption of pro-vitamin A biofortified (yellow) cassava improves serum retinol concentrations in preschool children in Nigeria: a randomized controlled trial · Source |
Controlled trial |
Methods, limits and fundingRead: abstract | ||
| p33813203 Effect of processing and variety on starch digestibility and glycemic index of popular foods made from cassava (Manihot esculenta) · Source |
Other n/a |
Methods, limits and fundingRead: abstract | ||
| p33964344 Konzo risk factors, determinants and etiopathogenesis: What is new? A systematic review · Source |
Systematic review |
Methods, limits and fundingRead: abstract | ||
| p37822215 Cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz): A Systematic Review for the Pharmacological Activities, Traditional Uses, Nutritional Values, and Phytochemistry · Source |
Systematic review mixed |
Methods, limits and fundingRead: abstract | ||
| s-efsa-cng-2019 EFSA CONTAM Panel: Evaluation of the health risks related to the presence of cyanogenic glycosides in foods other than raw apricot kernels (2019) · Source |
Health agency n/a |
Methods, limits and fundingRead: full-text | ||
| s-gbif-manihot-esculenta GBIF Backbone: Manihot esculenta Crantz (usageKey 3060998) · Source |
Reference database n/a |
Methods, limits and fundingRead: full-text | ||
| s-pubchem-linamarin PubChem: Linamarin (CID 11128) · Source |
Reference database n/a |
Methods, limits and fundingRead: full-text | ||
| s-usda-fdc-169985 USDA FoodData Central: Cassava, raw (FDC 169985) · Source |
Reference database n/a |
Methods, limits and fundingRead: full-text | ||
| s-who-natural-toxins WHO: Natural toxins in food (fact sheet) · Source |
Health agency n/a |
Methods, limits and fundingRead: full-text |
What we do not know yet
- No trial of eating ordinary white cassava for any health outcome in adults was found.
- The yellow cassava trials were in African children with marginal vitamin A status; haemoglobin results disagreed.
- No trial of cassava foods in people with diabetes was found; glycemic index values come from lab models and healthy adults.
- No official pregnancy, breastfeeding or medicine-interaction guidance for cassava was found, and allergy was read as titles only.
- Cyanide in tapioca pearls and starch, heavy metals, moulds and cooked or processed nutrient values were not researched. Codex and FSANZ figures are second-hand through EFSA.
How new research is added
New studies are found by a saved PubMed search and placed in a review queue before the page changes.
Lab markers
What changed in blood or saliva tests during trials. A changed number is not the same as feeling or being healthier, and we give no "normal ranges".
Other 3
Serum retinol (blood vitamin A)
Raised in trials
The amount of retinol, the active form of vitamin A, in the blood.
Moderate certaintyResults and what it means
Why it was measured
It is the usual blood measure of vitamin A status in children.
Statistical vs. clinical meaning
A small rise; the trials did not measure whether it changed illness.
Safety implication
None specific beyond the usual cassava processing rules.
| Study | Result | People | Product |
|---|---|---|---|
| 6 | +0.04 micromol/L (95% CI 0.00 to 0.07) with yellow cassava vs white cassava | 342 Kenyan schoolchildren aged 5-13 with marginal vitamin A status | Provitamin A-rich yellow cassava, about 371 g a day on average, 18.5 weeks |
| 10 | +0.06 micromol/L (95% CI 0.004 to 0.124) with yellow cassava vs white cassava | 176 Nigerian preschool children aged 3-5 (159 finished) | Foods from yellow cassava twice a day, six days a week, 93 days, open-label |
Haemoglobin (blood level)
Mixed results in trials
The oxygen-carrying protein in red blood cells; low levels mean anaemia.
Mixed findingsResults and what it means
Why it was measured
It was a secondary outcome in both yellow cassava trials.
Statistical vs. clinical meaning
The two trials disagree, so no firm claim can be made.
Safety implication
None specific.
Blood glucose and insulin after a test drink
Lowered in trials
How much blood sugar and insulin rise in the hours after a measured amount of starch or sugar.
Very low certaintyResults and what it means
Why it was measured
A smaller rise after a meal is generally seen as a gentler effect on blood sugar.
Statistical vs. clinical meaning
A short-term effect of an ingredient in healthy people; not a result for cassava food or for diabetes.
Safety implication
Flatulence at the 50 g dose.
| Study | Result | People | Product |
|---|---|---|---|
| 9 | Glucose 104.6 vs 135.9 mg/dl and insulin 13.0 vs 47.9 microIU/ml at 30 minutes, versus a glucose drink | 16 healthy adults | 50 g tapioca resistant maltodextrin (an ingredient, not cassava root) |
Safety
What studies and official sources say about side effects, medicines and who should check first. Each point shows what kind of evidence it comes from.
Main points to know 6
- Never eat raw cassava: it can release cyanide and cause poisoning, sometimes fatal. WHO names cassava among the important foods that contain cyanogenic glycosides, plant chemicals that release cyanide. WHO lists the signs of acute cyanide poisoning as fast breathing, falling blood pressure, dizziness, headache, stomach pain, vomiting, diarrhoea, confusion, bluish skin, twitching and convulsions, then coma, and says death can occur when the cyanide level is more than a person can clear. EFSA, the European food safety agency, worked out that for a raw root with the highest cyanide level it found in European shops (235 mg per kg), only about 1 g is enough to reach its acute safety limit for a toddler and about 6 g for an adult. EFSA also reports an outbreak in Mozambique in which 70 people were hospitalised after eating bitter cassava. Authoritative guidance 18 14
- Konzo: lasting leg paralysis linked to long-term reliance on poorly processed bitter cassava. Konzo is a permanent, irreversible weakness and stiffness of both legs seen mostly in schoolchildren and women of childbearing age in parts of Africa. A 2019 review says it is consistently linked to chronic dependence on insufficiently processed bitter cassava and that there is no cure, so prevention matters most. A 2021 systematic review found cassava cyanide and protein malnutrition well-documented risk factors but said studies have not shown that cyanide alone causes konzo. It is a risk of a very limited diet, not of eating properly prepared cassava as part of a varied diet. Systematic review 7 12 2
- Flour and other processed products can still be dangerous if processing was poor. In September 2017, 33 people in Kasese District, Uganda, were admitted to hospital with diarrhoea, vomiting and stomach pain after a funeral meal made by mixing hot water with cassava flour. The batch, traced to one wholesaler, had high cyanogenic content. EFSA reports that Codex sets limits of 10 mg per kg of total cyanide for cassava flour and 2 mg per kg for gari (second-hand: the Codex text was not read). Case series 8 14
- Home cooking of the whole root does not remove most of the cyanide; grating, soaking and fermenting do. EFSA says that boiling, steaming, baking or frying whole fresh roots or root pieces is not very effective, usually leaving 50% or more of the cyanide. Methods that break up the root cells, such as crushing, repeated pounding or grating, or soaking in water for several days, followed by fermenting and roasting, can remove more than 90%. Traditional products such as gari and fufu keep about 2% of the original cyanide. A 'wetting method' for cassava flour was promoted in the DRC; a follow-up visit to one village found no new konzo cases and a mean flour cyanide of 9 ppm. Note that EFSA's tables also show lower cyanide in boiled or steamed cassava from retail samples; processing results vary. Authoritative guidance 14 4
- Thyroid: cassava cyanide can add to the effect of too little iodine. EFSA says thiocyanate, formed from cyanide, is similar in size to iodide and interferes with iodide uptake by the thyroid, and that thyroid problems (goitre, underactive thyroid) linked to cassava have only been reported where poorly detoxified cassava was eaten in areas of iodine deficiency with too little protein. Authoritative guidance 14
- Allergy to cassava is rare but reported, including a case with latex cross-reaction. Two papers describe allergic reactions to manioc (cassava): a case report of anaphylaxis with cross-reactivity to latex (2003) and a 2011 letter identifying cassava allergens that may be involved in latex-fruit syndrome. Neither paper had an abstract on PubMed, so only the titles were read. We do not know how common cassava allergy is. Case report 1 3
Side effects 4
| Effect | How often | Severity and recovery | Evidence |
|---|---|---|---|
| Acute cyanide poisoning (vomiting, stomach pain, headache, fast breathing, confusion, convulsions, coma) Linked to raw, bitter or badly processed cassava or flour, not to properly processed products. | Reported in outbreaks: 70 hospitalised in Mozambique (bitter cassava, via EFSA); 33 admitted in Uganda 2017 (cassava flour) | severe, can be fatal Not stated in the sources read | Authoritative guidance 18 14 8 |
| Konzo (permanent spastic paralysis of the legs) Mostly children and women of childbearing age; linked to a monotonous diet of insufficiently processed bitter cassava and often protein malnutrition. | Mozambique epidemics reported: over 1,100 cases in 1981, over 600 in 1992-1993, over 100 in 2005 | severe, lasting Permanent and irreversible (2019 review); no cure | Narrative review 7 2 12 |
| Goitre or underactive thyroid in areas of low iodine Only reported with poorly detoxified cassava, iodine deficiency and low protein (EFSA). | Not established | not stated Not stated | Authoritative guidance 14 |
| Allergic reaction, including anaphylaxis with latex cross-reaction Titles only were read. | Not established | not stated (one case was called anaphylactic in its title) Not stated | Case report 1 3 |
Liver
No liver injury from eating cassava was found in the sources read. A liver-safety source (such as LiverTox) was not searched for this food page.
How often. No frequency was found.
Monitoring. No agency monitoring advice was found.
This is a safety connection. It is not evidence that Cassava (Yuca) supports liver health.
Medicines and supplements 3
| With | Why it matters | Importance | Evidence | What to do |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Low iodine intake (iodine deficiency) dietary | Thiocyanate, formed from cassava cyanide, is similar in size to iodide and can interfere with iodide uptake by the thyroid (EFSA). | EFSA says thyroid effects are reported only with poorly detoxified cassava, iodine deficiency and low protein intake. | Authoritative guidance Moderate certainty 14 | Where iodine intake is low, rely on properly processed cassava and ask a clinician about thyroid health. |
| Latex allergy allergy | A 2003 case report and a 2011 letter link cassava allergy to latex cross-reactivity (titles only read). | Not known beyond the case-level reports. | Case report Very low certainty 1 3 | If you have a latex allergy and react to cassava, ask an allergist. |
| Prescription medicines (general) prescription | No source read reports a drug interaction with eating cassava. | Unknown. Absence of reports is not proof of safety. | Insufficient Not enough evidence | Ask a pharmacist if you take regular medicines and eat cassava every day. |
Who should check first 6
| Situation | Advice | Evidence |
|---|---|---|
| Raw cassava, or cassava not processed or cooked properly (any age) | Do not eat it. Use the preparation your local food-safety guidance gives for sweet or bitter cassava, and be cautious with cassava flour and other products from unknown sources. | Authoritative guidance 18 14 8 |
| A diet that relies mainly on bitter cassava, especially for children and women of childbearing age | Konzo risk rises with a monotonous diet of insufficiently processed bitter cassava and with protein shortage. Prevention is proper processing and a varied diet. | Systematic review 12 7 2 |
| Low iodine intake or a thyroid condition | Ask a clinician. EFSA reports thyroid effects only where processing was poor, iodine was low and protein was low. | Authoritative guidance 14 |
| Known allergy to cassava or latex | Avoid it and ask an allergist. Call emergency services for trouble breathing or swelling of the face or throat. | Case report 1 3 |
| Pregnancy and breastfeeding | No official pregnancy or breastfeeding guidance for cassava was found. EFSA's opinion summarises some animal studies of high-cyanide cassava diets in pregnancy with adverse findings in some animals; these are animal data and do not describe properly processed cassava as eaten by people. Ask a doctor, especially if cassava is a main food. | Animal research 14 |
| Young children | EFSA's calculation shows the acute safety limit is reached with a much smaller amount of raw root for a toddler (about 1 g) than for an adult (about 6 g). Raw or unprocessed cassava must never be given to children. | Authoritative guidance 14 |
Overdose, product quality and regulators
Summary. The toxic part is the cyanide released from natural plant chemicals (linamarin) in raw cassava. Properly processed cassava is a staple for millions; EFSA, quoting a 2014 Australian-New Zealand assessment, says worst-case estimates reach the safety limit but no adverse effects were reported in people eating properly processed cassava.
Animal. EFSA's tables list animal studies of cassava diets (rats, hamsters and others) with effects on the nervous system, thyroid and pregnancy; details were not read.
Human doses studied. Cuban adults who ate 1 to 4 kg of boiled fresh sweet cassava roots had a rise in urine linamarin (EFSA, quoting a 1995 study); no harm is described in the text read. This is not a safety recommendation.
High dose or long term signals. Konzo, tropical ataxic neuropathy (a nerve disease) and goitre have been linked to long-term consumption of poorly processed cassava as the main food (EFSA).
Overdose response. Acute cyanide poisoning signs are listed by WHO; see the urgent signs.
Genotoxicity. Not researched.
Toxic or hazardous parts. Raw root and, according to EFSA's text, cassava leaves also need detoxifying (pounding and boiling) before use.
Cyanide content of cassava varies a lot by variety, soil and processing. EFSA's table of raw 'sweet' cassava sold in Denmark (25 samples from Costa Rica) shows a range of 11 to 235 mg cyanide per kg. Pesticide residues, heavy metals and moulds in cassava products were not researched.
Cyanide variation in shop cassava. A Danish retail survey (2008) quoted by EFSA found 11 to 235 mg total cyanide per kg in raw cassava labelled sweet, with a mean of 73 mg per kg. Codex describes sweet cassava as under 50 mg per kg, so some roots sold as sweet were above that figure. 14
Flour batches. In Uganda in 2017, one wholesale batch of cassava flour had high cyanogenic content and caused 33 hospital admissions. 8
| Body | Action | Date |
|---|---|---|
| WHO (International) | Fact sheet on natural toxins in food names cassava among the important foods containing cyanogenic glycosides and lists the signs of acute cyanide poisoning. source | 2023-03-10 |
| EFSA (European Food Safety Authority) (European Union) | 2019 opinion applies an acute reference dose of 20 micrograms of cyanide per kg of body weight to all dietary sources and calculates the small amounts of raw cassava root, gari and cassava flour that can reach it. source | 2019 |
When to get medical help
- After eating cassava or cassava flour: fast breathing, dizziness, severe headache, repeated vomiting, stomach pain, confusion, bluish lips or skin, twitching or convulsions. Call emergency services or a poison centre straight away (WHO lists these as signs of acute cyanide poisoning).
- Trouble breathing, swelling of the lips, face or throat, or widespread hives after eating cassava.
- Several people falling ill after the same cassava meal (as in the Uganda outbreak): get medical help and keep the leftover food.
- New weakness, stiffness or difficulty walking in a child or young woman whose main food is cassava: see a doctor (konzo signs; no cure, so early advice on diet matters).
Stop using the product and contact a clinician or emergency service. In the US, Poison Control is 1-800-222-1222.
General information only, not medical advice. Ask a clinician or pharmacist before use, especially with medicines, in pregnancy or with a health condition. See the Natural Remedy Safety guide.
Frequently asked questions
Is raw cassava poisonous?
What are the signs of cyanide poisoning from cassava?
WHO lists fast breathing, a drop in blood pressure, dizziness, headache, stomach pain, vomiting, diarrhoea, confusion, bluish skin, twitching and convulsions, then coma. Call emergency services or a poison centre straight away.
Does cooking make cassava safe?
Not reliably. EFSA says boiling, steaming, baking or frying whole roots or pieces usually leaves 50% or more of the cyanide. Grating, soaking for days, fermenting and roasting remove more than 90%.
What is konzo?
Is cassava flour safe?
Is tapioca the same as cassava?
Tapioca is the starch from the cassava root. We did not find cyanide data for tapioca pearls or starch, and a trial of a manufactured tapioca fibre ingredient is not a trial of eating cassava.
Does cassava harm the thyroid?
EFSA says cassava thiocyanate can interfere with iodine uptake, but thyroid problems were reported only with poorly detoxified cassava, iodine deficiency and low protein intake.
Is cassava good for blood sugar or diabetes?
Is yellow cassava better for vitamin A?
Can you be allergic to cassava?
Is cassava safe in pregnancy or for children?
No cassava-specific official guidance was found. EFSA's calculation shows a toddler reaches the acute safety limit with far less raw root than an adult (about 1 g versus 6 g), so raw cassava must never be given to children. Ask a doctor, especially if cassava is a main food.
What nutrients does cassava have?
Per 100 g of raw root, USDA lists 160 kcal, 38.1 g carbohydrate, 1.36 g protein, 20.6 mg vitamin C and 271 mg potassium. It is low in protein and has almost no vitamin A. Cooked and processed values were not read.
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Editorial transparency
- Written by
- AlternativeMed editorial team. Research compiled with AI assistance, then checked against the sources listed.
- Medical review
- None. This page has not been reviewed by a physician or pharmacist.
- First published
- 2026-10-26
- Last substantive update
- 2026-10-26
- How we research
- We started from our existing cassava summary, re-checked nutrition at USDA FoodData Central, read the WHO fact sheet and the full text of the 2019 EFSA opinion, and read PubMed abstracts for the trials and reviews cited. Two allergy papers had no abstract, so only their titles were read. Items we could not verify are flagged in the research gaps.
- How we rate evidence
- See "How we rate evidence" in the Evidence tab.
- Independence
- No product is promoted on this page. No affiliate links are shown.
Sources 18
Each source was opened and checked. Where we read only the abstract, it says so. The small numbers in the text point here.
- . Anaphylactic reaction to manioc: cross-reactivity to latex. . . (title-only)
- . Konzo and continuing cyanide intoxication from cassava in Mozambique. . . (abstract)
- . Allergic reactions to manioc (Manihot esculenta Crantz): identification of novel allergens with potential involvement in latex-fruit syndrome. . . (title-only)
- . Effectiveness of wetting method for control of konzo and reduction of cyanide poisoning by removal of cyanogens from cassava flour. . . (abstract)
- . Glycaemic index and load values tested in normoglycemic adults for five staple foodstuffs: pounded yam, pounded cassava-plantain, placali, attieke and maize meal stiff porridge. . . (abstract)
- . Biofortified yellow cassava and vitamin A status of Kenyan children: a randomized controlled trial. . . (abstract)
- . Konzo: a distinct neurological disease associated with food (cassava) cyanogenic poisoning. . . (abstract)
- . Outbreak of Cyanide Poisoning Caused by Consumption of Cassava Flour - Kasese District, Uganda, September 2017. . . (abstract)
- . Attenuation of glycaemic and insulin responses following tapioca resistant maltodextrin consumption in healthy subjects: a randomised cross-over controlled trial. . . (abstract)
- . Daily consumption of pro-vitamin A biofortified (yellow) cassava improves serum retinol concentrations in preschool children in Nigeria: a randomized controlled trial. . . (abstract)
- . Effect of processing and variety on starch digestibility and glycemic index of popular foods made from cassava (Manihot esculenta). . . (abstract)
- . Konzo risk factors, determinants and etiopathogenesis: What is new? A systematic review. . . (abstract)
- . Cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz): A Systematic Review for the Pharmacological Activities, Traditional Uses, Nutritional Values, and Phytochemistry. . . (abstract)
- . EFSA CONTAM Panel: Evaluation of the health risks related to the presence of cyanogenic glycosides in foods other than raw apricot kernels (2019). . . (full-text)
- . GBIF Backbone: Manihot esculenta Crantz (usageKey 3060998). . . (full-text)
- . PubChem: Linamarin (CID 11128). . . (full-text)
- . USDA FoodData Central: Cassava, raw (FDC 169985). . . (full-text)
- . WHO: Natural toxins in food (fact sheet). . . (full-text)
