Herbs & Botanicals · Chinese heat-clearing fruit
Gardenia
Gardenia jasminoides · also called Zhi zi, Cape jasmine fruit, gardenia fruit, Gardeniae Fructus
Gardenia fruit, called zhi zi in Chinese medicine, is the dried fruit of Gardenia jasminoides. It is used to cool 'heat' and calm inflammation, and it also gives natural yellow and blue food colours. Human evidence is thin: most studies are in animals or test multi-herb formulas. The key caution is the liver, because high amounts of its main compound injured rat livers, and years of patent medicines containing it have been linked to bowel vein scarring.
General information, not medical advice. Last substantive update · Not medically reviewed. A named clinician has not signed off on this page. How this page is made
About Gardenia
Gardenia fruit is a classic Chinese cooling herb with little human research on the single herb. The liver and the gut are the main cautions.
What it is
Gardenia fruit, or zhi zi, is the dried fruit of Gardenia jasminoides, a shrub of the coffee family. It is used in Chinese and Japanese (sanshishi) medicine, often inside mixed formulas.
Its pigments are also used as natural yellow and blue food colours.
How it may work
The main compound, geniposide, and the related genipin and crocetin have anti-inflammatory and liver-related effects in lab and animal work.
At high amounts in rats, geniposide disturbed bile acid handling and injured the liver. These are animal findings.
What the research shows
Meta-analyses of 19 and 16 trials tested gardenia-containing formulas for newborn jaundice and overactive thyroid. They cannot show what gardenia alone does.
Two small trials found some sleep benefit from isolated crocetin. Fatty-liver and mood findings are from rodents.
At a glance
Traditional uses history, not proof
- Clearing heat, fever and irritability in Chinese medicine
- Jaundice and liver-bile problems
- Swelling and inflammation
Studied for research
- Newborn jaundice (four-herb formula), very low certainty
- Overactive thyroid (formula plus drug), very low certainty
- Sleep (isolated crocetin pigment), low certainty
- Fatty liver (animals), insufficient
- Anxious mood (mice), insufficient
Main compounds
- Geniposide (PubChem CID 107848)
- Genipin (CID 442424)
- Crocin (CID 5281233) and crocetin (CID 5281232)
Common forms
- Dried fruit
- Decoction or granules
- Chinese or Japanese patent medicine
- Extract
- Food colour (gardenia blue, yellow)
Research links: Tian 2022: review of Fructus Gardeniae including toxicity (PubMed) · Shimizu 2017: nationwide survey of mesenteric phlebosclerosis (PubMed) · Tian 2017: geniposide liver injury in rats (PubMed) · Zhang 2025: Zhizi Qinggan decoction meta-analysis (PubMed) · Research Library · Genes & Biomarkers Library
The plant and its history
- Accepted scientific name
- Gardenia jasminoides J.Ellis (GBIF ACCEPTED, exact match, confidence 98)
- Naming authority
- J.Ellis
- Common names
- Gardenia fruit (English); Cape jasmine fruit (English); Zhi zi (Chinese (pinyin)); Sanshishi (Japanese); Gardeniae Fructus (Latin pharmacy name)
- Botanical family
- Rubiaceae (the coffee family)
- Classification
- Plantae > Not pulled > Not pulled > Gentianales > Rubiaceae > Gardenia > Gardenia jasminoides
- Native range
- Not verified in this build.
- Habitat
- Not covered.
- What the plant looks like
- Roots: Not covered.; Stems: Not covered.; Leaves: Not covered.; Flowers: Not covered.; Fruit: The dried fruit is the part used in medicine and as a source of yellow pigment.; Seeds: Not covered.; Cultivation: Not covered.
- Harvest and processing
- A review says the chemistry of different parts and of processed fruit differs from that of the whole fruit (abstract only). Traditional processing methods were not read.
- Look-alikes and adulterants
- Name: Other Gardenia species or varieties; Note: Not tested. We found no study of species mix-ups in products.
- Sustainability and conservation
- Not covered.
Traditional use and history history, not clinical proof
| Tradition or era | Documented use | Source |
|---|---|---|
| Chinese medicine | The fruit is recorded in an early Chinese herbal classic (Sheng Nong's), used as both medicine and food, to clear heat, move fluids and help the liver and bile. | p35066066 |
| Chinese medicine formulas | Used in classic formulas such as Yin Chen Hao Tang and Zhi Zi Chi decoction. | p37905694 |
| Japanese Kampo | Called sanshishi and contained in formulas such as Kamishoyosan. | p34341949 |
Traditional use shows how a plant was used. It does not show that a supplement works or is safe today.
What is inside, and how it may work
What the plant contains and how those compounds act in cells and animals. Laboratory and animal mechanisms are not proven effects in people.
Main compounds
| Compound | Family | Where it is concentrated | Activity studied | Level of evidence |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Geniposide PubChem 107848 | Iridoid glycoside | Fruit | Main active compound and quality marker; linked to both liver protection and, at high amounts, liver injury in animals. 10 9 19 | Animal research |
| Genipin PubChem 442424 | Iridoid (formed from geniposide) | Fruit | A review proposes it can bind proteins and inactivate liver CYP450 enzymes in animals. It is also the source of gardenia blue colour. 1 19 17 | Lab |
| Crocin PubChem 5281233 | Carotenoid glycoside (yellow pigment) | Fruit | Yellow food and dye pigment. No human crocin data were read. 19 | Lab |
| Crocetin PubChem 5281232 | Carotenoid | Fruit | Studied in two small human sleep trials as an isolated compound. 6 12 19 | Human (small trials) |
Mechanisms, receptors and pathways
| Target or pathway | Gene or receptor | What was found | Level |
|---|---|---|---|
| Bile acid signalling (FXR) and inflammasome | FXR, BSEP, NTCP, NLRP3 | At a very high amount in rats, geniposide lowered FXR signalling, disturbed bile acids and increased inflammasome signals, causing liver injury; an FXR drug reversed much of it. 5 9 | Animal research |
| TNF-alpha / NF-kB | TNF-alpha, NF-kB | A 25-study animal meta-analysis says geniposide's protective and toxic effects both run through this pathway, controlling oxidative stress and inflammation. 15 | Animal research |
| Liver CYP450 enzymes | CYP450 | Genipin may inactivate them (animal proposal, summary-only). 1 | Animal research |
| Gut-brain axis | gut bacteria | The Zhi Zi Chi decoction changed gut bacteria in anxious-depression mice. 11 | Animal research |
Absorption, metabolism and elimination
- Absorption
- Not found in people.
- Distribution
- Not found.
- Metabolism
- A review summary says geniposide is turned into genipin; not re-read in this build.
- Elimination
- Not found.
- Bioavailability
- No human blood-level study was found.
Isolated compounds versus whole extracts
Most toxicity work uses isolated geniposide, while traditional use is the whole fruit in mixed formulas. Reviews note that processing and pairing with other herbs change the chemistry and the risk. Isolated crocetin trials say nothing about the whole fruit. Gardenia blue and yellow are refined food colours.
Nutritional composition
Gardenia fruit is a medicinal and colouring ingredient, not a nutrient. Refined gardenia blue was approved by the US FDA as a food colour in July 2025.
1 low certainty2 very low certainty3 not enough evidence
What was looked at
The 6 benefits and uses checked for Gardenia, each with how strong the evidence is. Tap one to open it.
- Newborn jaundice and liver measures (in a four-herb formula)Very low certainty
- Overactive thyroid (in a multi-herb formula)Very low certainty
- Fatty liver and liver protection (animal studies)Not enough evidence
- Clearing heat and calming inflammation (traditional use)Not enough evidence
- Sleep quality (crocetin, a pigment from the fruit)Low certainty
- Anxious and low mood (mouse studies)Not enough evidence
Lab markers tracked in the studies
Bilirubin (newborn jaundice)Thyroid hormones (free T3, free T4, TSH)Deep-sleep brain waves (delta power) and night wakings
What is Gardenia good for?
The studied uses and how strong the evidence is for each. For gardenia fruit, nothing is established for the single herb.
Benefits, one by one
Each card is a research question, not a promise. Tap a goal to filter. Open a card to see the studies, doses and limits.
Newborn jaundice and liver measures (in a four-herb formula)
Very low certaintyGardenia is one of four herbs in Yinzhihuang granules. Across 19 trials, newborns given the formula plus light therapy cleared bilirubin faster than light therapy alone. We cannot say how much is due to gardenia.
1 studiesYinzhihuang granules (Artemisia capillaris, Gardenia jasminoides, Lon…
Studies, doses and limits
What the trials found
A 2022 meta-analysis pooled 19 randomized trials (2,221 newborns) of Yinzhihuang granules plus phototherapy versus phototherapy alone. The authors are linked to the manufacturer.
Results
Total bilirubin fell more with the formula (WMD -30.34, 95% CI -35.44 to -25.23; units not given in the abstract). Direct and indirect bilirubin, recovery time and hospital stay also favoured the formula. Fewer adverse reactions (diarrhoea, rash, fever) were reported in the formula group (RR 0.44).
Effect sizes as reported
Four-herb formula, not gardenia alone.
Why this rating
Evidence is for a mixed formula, trial heterogeneity is noted by the authors, and the authors are industry-linked. Nothing isolates gardenia.
Form and dose studied
Yinzhihuang granules (Artemisia capillaris, Gardenia jasminoides, Lonicera japonica, Scutellaria baicalensis extracts).
Who was studied
Newborns in hospital with pathologic jaundice.
Limits
Cannot be assigned to gardenia. Not a reason for anyone to give a baby an herbal product.
Why researchers looked
Gardenia fruit is traditionally used in China for jaundice and liver heat.
Traditional use
Used for centuries in Chinese medicine to clear heat and damp from the liver and gallbladder.
Proposed mechanism Animal research
Lab and animal work reports bile-flow-increasing (choleretic) and liver-protecting actions for the fruit and geniposide; not shown to explain the trial results.
A proposed mechanism does not show that the effect happens in people.
Newborn care is for doctors. See the Safety tab for liver cautions.
Overactive thyroid (in a multi-herb formula)
Very low certaintySixteen trials tested a gardenia-containing formula added to the standard thyroid drug methimazole. Thyroid measures improved more than with methimazole alone. Gardenia's own share cannot be separated.
1 studiesZhizi Qinggan decoction with methimazole.
Studies, doses and limits
What the trials found
A 2025 meta-analysis of 16 randomized trials (1,320 people) compared the formula plus methimazole with methimazole alone.
Results
Free T3 SMD -0.79, free T4 SMD -2.09, TSH SMD 1.99 (the expected direction when overactive thyroid is treated), thyroid volume SMD -1.22, clinical efficacy OR 6.05. Adverse reactions are listed with OR 2.61 as a significant difference; the abstract does not say which group had more.
Effect sizes as reported
Formula plus drug versus drug alone; gardenia cannot be isolated.
Why this rating
Several-herb formula, no gardenia-only trial, unclear bias ratings in the abstract, and an unclear adverse-reaction direction.
Form and dose studied
Zhizi Qinggan decoction with methimazole.
Who was studied
Adults with hyperthyroidism (mean age 39.3).
Limits
Do not read this as gardenia treating thyroid disease. Thyroid drugs must not be changed without a doctor.
Why researchers looked
Zhizi Qinggan decoction is a Chinese formula used for hyperthyroidism symptoms.
Traditional use
Heat-clearing use in Chinese medicine.
Proposed mechanism Pharmacological theory
Not established.
A proposed mechanism does not show that the effect happens in people.
Possible extra adverse reactions with the combination.
Fatty liver and liver protection (animal studies)
Not enough evidenceRodent studies report lower liver enzymes, less inflammation and less scarring with fruit extract. Reviewers note that human evidence is lacking.
3 studiesFruit extract; isolated geniposide.
Studies, doses and limits
What the trials found
No human trial was found. A 25-study animal meta-analysis found geniposide both protective and toxic depending on the setting.
Results
Rodents: lower liver enzymes and fibrosis (summary-only for the fatty-liver study). Meta-analysis: geniposide raised ALT and AST in the toxicity studies and lowered them in liver-injury models.
Effect sizes as reported
None in people.
Why this rating
Animal and lab studies only; the same compounds injure the liver in other animal studies.
Form and dose studied
Fruit extract; isolated geniposide.
Who was studied
Rodents.
Limits
Animals are not people, and the safe window is narrow in the animal data.
Why researchers looked
Researchers are testing gardenia compounds for fatty liver.
Traditional use
Traditional liver use.
Proposed mechanism Animal research
Rodent studies point to effects on inflammation and fat handling; not tested in people.
A proposed mechanism does not show that the effect happens in people.
See the Safety tab; liver harm is the main concern.
Clearing heat and calming inflammation (traditional use)
Not enough evidenceIn Chinese medicine zhi zi is a classic 'cooling' herb for fever, irritability, jaundice and swelling. No good human trial of the single herb was found.
2 studiesDried fruit in decoctions and patent medicines.
Studies, doses and limits
What the trials found
A 2022 review describes the traditional uses and lab effects; no human trial of the fruit alone is reported in its abstract.
Results
Not available for people.
Effect sizes as reported
None.
Why this rating
Traditional use and lab data only.
Form and dose studied
Dried fruit in decoctions and patent medicines.
Who was studied
None.
Limits
Traditional use is not proof of benefit.
Why researchers looked
Recorded in a classic Chinese herbal text and used in many formulas.
Traditional use
Heat-clearing, fluid-moving, liver and bile support.
Proposed mechanism Laboratory research
Lab studies report anti-inflammatory and antioxidant actions for the extract and geniposide.
A proposed mechanism does not show that the effect happens in people.
Same cautions as the Safety tab.
Sleep quality (crocetin, a pigment from the fruit)
Low certaintyTwo small crossover trials gave healthy adults crocetin, a compound taken from gardenia fruit. Some sleep measures improved, others did not. This is the pigment, not the whole fruit.
2 studiesIsolated crocetin, not the fruit.
Studies, doses and limits
What the trials found
A 2010 pilot (21 healthy men) and a 2018 trial (30 healthy adults), both double-blind, placebo-controlled crossover trials of 2 weeks per period.
Results
2010: fewer wakening episodes on crocetin (p=0.025); sleep-quality ratings only tended to improve; no side effects seen. 2018: delta power was higher; sleep latency, efficiency, total sleep time and time awake did not differ; self-rated sleepiness on rising and feeling refreshed improved.
Effect sizes as reported
Small effects on some measures only.
Why this rating
Two small short trials in healthy people with mild sleep complaints; mixed results; the second is industry-linked; isolated pigment.
Form and dose studied
Isolated crocetin, not the fruit.
Who was studied
Healthy adults with mild sleep complaints.
Limits
Cannot be applied to gardenia fruit or to people with insomnia or on sleep medicines.
Why researchers looked
Crocetin is a carotenoid made from gardenia fruit and sold as a supplement ingredient.
Traditional use
Not a traditional use of the fruit.
Proposed mechanism Pharmacological theory
Not established.
A proposed mechanism does not show that the effect happens in people.
No side effects were reported in the 2010 abstract.
Anxious and low mood (mouse studies)
Not enough evidenceA traditional two-ingredient decoction of gardenia fruit and fermented soybean eased depression-like and anxiety-like behaviour in stressed mice. There is no human trial in the sources read.
1 studiesDecoction of gardenia fruit and fermented soybean.
Studies, doses and limits
What the trials found
None in people.
Results
Mice: improved behaviour on stress tests.
Effect sizes as reported
None.
Why this rating
Mouse study of a two-ingredient decoction.
Form and dose studied
Decoction of gardenia fruit and fermented soybean.
Who was studied
Mice.
Limits
Cannot be transferred to people.
Why researchers looked
Zhi Zi Chi decoction is a classic formula used for restlessness and low mood.
Traditional use
Classic formula for irritability and sleeplessness.
Proposed mechanism Animal research
In mice the decoction changed gut bacteria and stress-related gene pathways.
A proposed mechanism does not show that the effect happens in people.
No human safety data.
Connections to the rest of health
How Gardenia connects to the rest of our health knowledge graph. Every link says what kind of connection it is. A safety link (for example to the liver) is a warning, not a benefit. A study that merely mentions a topic never creates a benefit link.
Explore every connection: goals, body systems, organs, symptoms, genes
A. Wellness goals
| Connected to | Kind of connection | Evidence status | Context | Studies |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Liver Support | Preliminary mechanism | Very low certainty | Newborn jaundice and liver measures (in a four-herb formula): Gardenia is one of four herbs in Yinzhihuang granules. Across 19 trials, newborns given the formula plus light therapy cleared bilirubin faster than light therapy alone. We cannot say how much is due to gardenia. Fatty liver and liver protection (animal studies): Rodent studies report lower liver enzymes, less inflammation and less scarring with fruit extract. Reviewers note that human evidence is lacking. | 2 8 15 1 |
| Thyroid Support | Preliminary mechanism | Very low certainty | Overactive thyroid (in a multi-herb formula): Sixteen trials tested a gardenia-containing formula added to the standard thyroid drug methimazole. Thyroid measures improved more than with methimazole alone. Gardenia's own share cannot be separated. | 16 |
| Inflammation Balance | Preliminary mechanism | Not enough evidence | Fatty liver and liver protection (animal studies): Rodent studies report lower liver enzymes, less inflammation and less scarring with fruit extract. Reviewers note that human evidence is lacking. | 8 15 1 |
| Inflammation Balance | Traditional use | Not enough evidence | Clearing heat and calming inflammation (traditional use): In Chinese medicine zhi zi is a classic 'cooling' herb for fever, irritability, jaundice and swelling. No good human trial of the single herb was found. | 10 1 |
| Better Sleep | Potential benefit | Low certainty | Sleep quality (crocetin, a pigment from the fruit): Two small crossover trials gave healthy adults crocetin, a compound taken from gardenia fruit. Some sleep measures improved, others did not. This is the pigment, not the whole fruit. | 6 12 |
| Sleep Quality | Potential benefit | Low certainty | Sleep quality (crocetin, a pigment from the fruit): Two small crossover trials gave healthy adults crocetin, a compound taken from gardenia fruit. Some sleep measures improved, others did not. This is the pigment, not the whole fruit. | 6 12 |
| Anxiety Support | Preliminary mechanism | Not enough evidence | Anxious and low mood (mouse studies): A traditional two-ingredient decoction of gardenia fruit and fermented soybean eased depression-like and anxiety-like behaviour in stressed mice. There is no human trial in the sources read. | 11 |
| Mood Balance | Preliminary mechanism | Not enough evidence | Anxious and low mood (mouse studies): A traditional two-ingredient decoction of gardenia fruit and fermented soybean eased depression-like and anxiety-like behaviour in stressed mice. There is no human trial in the sources read. | 11 |
B. Body systems
| Connected to | Kind of connection | Evidence status | Context | Studies |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Hepatic System | Biological association | Very low certainty | Studied for: Newborn jaundice and liver measures (in a four-herb formula) Studied for: Fatty liver and liver protection (animal studies) | 2 8 15 1 |
| Digestive System | Biological association | Very low certainty | Studied for: Newborn jaundice and liver measures (in a four-herb formula) Studied for: Clearing heat and calming inflammation (traditional use) | 2 10 1 |
| Endocrine System | Biological association | Very low certainty | Studied for: Overactive thyroid (in a multi-herb formula) | 16 |
| Immune System | Biological association | Not enough evidence | Studied for: Clearing heat and calming inflammation (traditional use) | 10 1 |
| Nervous System | Biological association | Low certainty | Studied for: Sleep quality (crocetin, a pigment from the fruit) Studied for: Anxious and low mood (mouse studies) | 6 12 11 |
E. Health conditions
| Connected to | Kind of connection | Evidence status | Context | Studies |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Mesenteric phlebosclerosis | Case series | Association with years of use; not proven cause. Preparation or compound: Patent medicines containing gardenia fruit |
7 |
I. Biomarkers
| Connected to | Kind of connection | Evidence status | Context | Studies |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Bilirubin (newborn jaundice) | Biological association | Very low certainty | Measured in trials: lowered. A lab change is not the same as a health benefit. | 2 |
| Thyroid hormones (free T3, free T4, TSH) | Biological association | Very low certainty | Measured in trials: lowered. A lab change is not the same as a health benefit. | 16 |
| Deep-sleep brain waves (delta power) and night wakings | Biological association | Low certainty | Measured in trials: mixed. A lab change is not the same as a health benefit. | 12 6 |
J. Genes, receptors and enzymes
L. Active compounds
| Connected to | Kind of connection | Evidence status | Context | Studies |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Geniposide | Biological association | Animal | Main active compound and quality marker; linked to both liver protection and, at high amounts, liver injury in animals. Preparation or compound: Fruit |
10 9 19 |
| Genipin | Biological association | Lab | A review proposes it can bind proteins and inactivate liver CYP450 enzymes in animals. It is also the source of gardenia blue colour. Preparation or compound: Fruit |
1 19 17 |
| Crocin | Biological association | Lab | Yellow food and dye pigment. No human crocin data were read. Preparation or compound: Fruit |
19 |
| Crocetin | Biological association | Human (small trials) | Studied in two small human sleep trials as an isolated compound. Preparation or compound: Fruit |
6 12 19 |
Each connection is stored with the ingredient, the connected record, the kind of connection, the evidence status, the supporting studies, the preparation or compound involved, and a review date (last reviewed October 25, 2026).
Evidence at a glance: what changed in 3 lab markers
Tap a number to show only those markers. Counts are markers, not people.
The evidence
The research centre for Gardenia. Every record here was checked against PubMed or the publisher's page; we never list a study we have not verified.
Evidence by outcome
Bars show how many studies we found for each outcome, not how well it works. People are added up across trials only (reviews are not added, to avoid double counting).
How we rate evidence
High certainty
Several well-run trials or reviews agree; further research is unlikely to change the picture much.
Moderate certainty
Good trials point the same way, but some doubt remains.
Low certainty
Small, short or inconsistent trials. The finding could change with better research.
Very low certainty
Very little or very weak human data. Treat as a possibility only.
Mixed findings
Trials or reviews disagree with each other.
Not enough evidence
Not enough human research to say either way.
Evidence against
Good research found no benefit, or found harm.
We take the reviewers' own risk-of-bias and GRADE statements where they exist, and otherwise judge from study size, design, consistency, directness and whether a product matches what is sold. Many publications do not make evidence high. Method note: We started from our existing gardenia summary, re-read the key PubMed abstracts, and searched for safety reports and human trials. Names were checked in GBIF and NCBI Taxonomy and four compounds in PubChem. Regulator pages were not found or not read.
Study library: every study we checked 20
| Study | Design | People | Product, dose, length | Result |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Cao 2025 Iridoids in gardenia fruit: key components in liver disease therapy Front Nutr · PMID 41080183 · DOI |
Review review of lab and animal studies |
Published literature | Gardenia fruit iridoids (geniposide, genipin) fruit not reported here n/a · vs none |
Summary from our earlier file: describes traditional uses, animal liver benefits, possible high-amount liver and kidney effects, a proposed CYP450 effect of genipin, and a lack of human clinical evidence. Narrative review. Methods, limits and fundingOutcomes: Liver disease uses, mechanisms, safety Limitations: Not re-opened in this build; carried over from our earlier summary. Funding and conflicts: Not checked. Read: summary-only |
| Feng 2022 Therapeutic efficacy and safety of Yinzhihuang granules with phototherapy in neonatal pathologic jaundice: An updated systematic review and meta-analysis Phytomedicine · PMID 35325827 · DOI |
Meta-analysis |
2221 19 randomized trials, 2,221 newborns with pathologic jaundice |
Yinzhihuang granules (Artemisia capillaris, Gardenia jasminoides, Lonicera japonica, Scutellaria baicalensis extracts) plus phototherapy fruit (one herb in a formula) not reported here varied · vs phototherapy alone |
Total bilirubin WMD -30.34, direct bilirubin WMD -15.03, indirect bilirubin WMD -11.22 (units not given in the abstract), recovery time WMD -2.96 and hospital stay WMD -3.83 (units not given in the abstract) favoured the formula. Adverse reactions (diarrhoea, rash, fever) were lower in the formula group (RR 0.44). Faster bilirubin fall with the formula added; effect cannot be assigned to gardenia. (total bilirubin WMD -30.34 (95% CI -35.44 to -25.23); adverse reactions RR 0.44 (0.33 to 0.59)) Methods, limits and fundingOutcomes: Bilirubin, recovery time, liver indices, adverse reactions Limitations: Four-herb formula; the authors note heterogeneity between trials. Funding and conflicts: Authors are linked to the manufacturer (Lunan Pharmaceutical Group); industry-linked. Read: abstract |
| Foster 2023 Extended one-generation reproductive toxicity study evaluating gardenia blue in Sprague Dawley rats. Regul Toxicol Pharmacol · PMID 37611796 · DOI |
Animal study rat |
Sprague-Dawley rats and their offspring | Gardenia blue powder (food colour) in feed n/a (refined pigment) not reported here Whole life cycle test · vs control diet |
Blue urine and faeces were seen and judged not harmful. Sperm count rose with dose. Thyroid and heart weights and female TSH changed without tissue changes. The highest diet level was the no-observed-adverse-effect level. No adverse effects found in rats at the tested levels. Methods, limits and fundingOutcomes: Reproduction, development, general toxicity Limitations: Rats; refined colour, not the herb. Funding and conflicts: Funded by the Gardenia Blue Interest Group; authors include employees of a colourant maker; industry-linked. Read: abstract |
| Hisanaga 2021 Mesenteric phlebosclerosis associated with the oral intake of Japanese traditional (Kampo) medicines containing Gardeniae Fructus. Clin J Gastroenterol · PMID 34341949 · DOI |
Case report |
1 Woman in her 50s |
Kamishoyosan (Kampo formula containing gardenia fruit) fruit (in a mixed formula) not reported here 13 years · vs none |
Scarring around small bowel-wall vessels was seen over the years, already present when the total gardenia amount taken was still low. One documented case of progression on endoscopy. Methods, limits and fundingOutcomes: Colonoscopy and biopsy over time Limitations: Single case; formula has many herbs. Funding and conflicts: Not stated in the abstract. Read: abstract |
| Jin 2025 Geniposide induces hepatotoxicity via the bile acid-induced activation of NLRP3 inflammasome and regulation of the FXR/PERK/TXNIP pathway Toxicol Lett · PMID 41043658 · DOI |
Animal study rat |
Healthy Sprague-Dawley rats | Isolated geniposide, by mouth (described by the authors as a 13-fold clinical equivalent amount) n/a (isolated compound) not reported here 5 days · vs control; a bile-acid drug (obeticholic acid) as a rescue test |
Geniposide disturbed bile acid handling, lowered FXR and its partners and raised inflammasome signals, causing liver injury. The FXR drug reversed much of it. Severe liver injury at a very high amount in rats. Methods, limits and fundingOutcomes: Bile acids, FXR pathway, inflammation, liver injury Limitations: Rats; far above any clinical amount; mechanism study. Funding and conflicts: Funding from Chinese research grants; one author reports a pending patent. Read: abstract |
| Kuratsune 2010 Effect of crocetin from Gardenia jasminoides Ellis on sleep: a pilot study. Phytomedicine · PMID 20537515 · DOI |
Controlled trial |
21 21 healthy men with a mild sleep complaint |
Crocetin (a pigment compound from gardenia fruit) fruit-derived isolate not reported here 2 weeks per period, 2-week washout (crossover) · vs placebo |
Fewer wakening episodes on crocetin than placebo (p=0.025). Self-rated sleep quality tended to be better than before intake. No side effects were seen. Fewer night wakings; subjective change was only a trend. (p=0.025 for wakening episodes) Methods, limits and fundingOutcomes: Sleep by actigraph; St Mary's Hospital Sleep Questionnaire Limitations: Pilot; 21 men; 2 weeks; isolated crocetin, not the whole fruit. Funding and conflicts: Not stated in the abstract; an author of the next trial works for a crocetin maker. Read: abstract |
| Shimizu 2017 Involvement of herbal medicine as a cause of mesenteric phlebosclerosis: results from a large-scale nationwide survey. J Gastroenterol · PMID 27220772 · DOI |
Case series |
222 222 Japanese patients with mesenteric phlebosclerosis |
Kampo and other herbal medicines containing sanshishi (gardenia fruit) fruit (in mixed formulas) not reported here Use ranged 3 to 51 years (mean 13.6) · vs none |
Of 169 patients with a known herbal history, 147 used herbal medicines and 119 of those used a gardenia-fruit product. That is 70.4% of the 169. Patients who stopped it did better than those who continued. Strong association; the authors say it may not be the cause. Methods, limits and fundingOutcomes: History of herbal use and outcome Limitations: Survey with no control group; the products were mixed formulas. Funding and conflicts: Not stated in the abstract. Read: abstract |
| Suttawong 2025 Gardenia jasminoides fruit extract ameliorates non-alcoholic steatohepatitis with fibrosis PLoS One · PMID 41042784 · DOI |
Animal study rodent |
Rodent model of fatty liver disease | Gardenia fruit extract fruit not reported here n/a · vs untreated animals |
Summary from our earlier file: lower liver enzymes, less inflammation and less fibrosis in rodents. Animal benefit only. Methods, limits and fundingOutcomes: Liver enzymes, inflammation, fibrosis Limitations: Not re-opened in this build. Funding and conflicts: Not checked. Read: summary-only |
| Tian 2017 Dose-related liver injury of Geniposide associated with the alteration in bile acid synthesis and transportation Sci Rep · PMID 28827769 · DOI |
Animal study rat |
Male Sprague-Dawley rats | Isolated geniposide, by mouth n/a (isolated compound) not reported here 3 days · vs lower amount and control |
The higher amount caused liver injury with raised ALT, AST, ALP and GGT and a 75% rise in liver bile acids. The lower amount did not. The authors state that clinical reports of fruit toxicity had not been published at that time. Dose-related liver injury in rats. Methods, limits and fundingOutcomes: Liver pathology, liver enzymes, bile acids Limitations: Rats; isolated compound for 3 days, not the whole fruit; relevance to people unknown. Funding and conflicts: No competing interests declared. Read: abstract |
| Tian 2022 A review of the ethnopharmacology, phytochemistry, pharmacology and toxicology of Fructus Gardeniae (Zhi-zi). J Ethnopharmacol · PMID 35066066 · DOI |
Review review of lab and animal studies |
Published literature on the dried fruit and its main compounds | Fructus Gardeniae and geniposide/genipin (toxicity) fruit not reported here n/a · vs none |
Reports hepatoprotective, choleretic, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, neuroprotective, anti-diabetic and antitumour effects in lab and animal work. An increasing number of studies show multiple organ injury, mainly liver and kidney. Few toxicity studies exist. Narrative review; no pooled numbers. Methods, limits and fundingOutcomes: Uses, chemistry, pharmacology, toxicity Limitations: Abstract read only; not a systematic risk-of-bias review. Funding and conflicts: Not stated in the abstract. Read: abstract |
| Tian 2024 Zhi Zi Chi decoction (Gardeniae fructus and semen Sojae Praeparatum) attenuates anxious depression via modulating microbiota-gut-brain axis in corticosterone combined with chronic restraint stress-induced mice CNS Neurosci Ther · PMID 37905694 · DOI |
Animal study mouse |
Mice with stress-induced anxious depression | Zhi Zi Chi decoction (gardenia fruit plus fermented soybean) fruit (in a two-herb decoction) not reported here n/a · vs untreated mice |
The decoction eased depression-like and anxiety-like behaviour in the mice and changed gut bacteria. Animal benefit only. Methods, limits and fundingOutcomes: Behaviour, gut bacteria, gene pathways Limitations: Mice; two-ingredient decoction; no human data. Funding and conflicts: Not stated in the abstract. Read: abstract |
| Umigai 2018 Effect of crocetin on quality of sleep: A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, crossover study. Complement Ther Med · PMID 30477864 · DOI |
Controlled trial |
30 30 healthy adults with mild sleep complaints |
Crocetin (a pigment compound from gardenia fruit) fruit-derived isolate not reported here 14 days per period, 14-day washout (crossover) · vs placebo |
Delta power was higher on crocetin. Sleep latency, sleep efficiency, total sleep time and time awake after sleep onset did not differ. Self-rated sleepiness on rising and feeling refreshed improved. Mixed: one brain-wave measure and two self-ratings better; other sleep measures unchanged. Methods, limits and fundingOutcomes: Brain-wave sleep parameters (EEG); Oguri-Shirakawa-Azumi sleep inventory Limitations: 30 people; 2 weeks; healthy adults; isolated compound. Funding and conflicts: Not stated in the abstract; the first author is affiliated with Riken Vitamin Co., which sells crocetin; treat as industry-linked. Read: abstract |
| Wang 2024 Idiopathic mesenteric phlebosclerosis missed by a radiologist at initial diagnosis: A case report. World J Clin Cases · PMID 38660081 · DOI |
Case report |
1 77-year-old woman with chronic diarrhoea |
Chinese patent medicines containing fructus gardeniae fruit (in patent medicines) not reported here More than 15 years · vs none |
Mesenteric vein calcification and a thickened bowel wall on CT. Diarrhoea improved after the medicines were stopped and other treatment given. One case; the authors say the link to herbs is possible. Methods, limits and fundingOutcomes: Diagnosis and course Limitations: Single case; other treatments were given at the same time. Funding and conflicts: No conflicts declared. Read: abstract |
| Yan 2025 Compatibility of Coptidis Rhizoma and Gardeniae Fructus in attenuating hepatotoxicity J Ethnopharmacol · PMID 39798674 · DOI |
Animal study mouse |
Mice | Gardenia fruit with coptis fruit not reported here n/a · vs gardenia fruit alone |
Summary from our earlier file: coptis lowered the liver enzyme rise caused by gardenia fruit in mice. Animal finding only. Methods, limits and fundingOutcomes: Liver enzymes Limitations: Not re-opened in this build; title and finding taken from our earlier summary. Funding and conflicts: Not checked. Read: summary-only |
| Zeng 2024 Bidirectional effects of geniposide in liver injury: Preclinical evidence construction based on meta-analysis. J Ethnopharmacol · PMID 37598771 · DOI |
Meta-analysis animal |
479 25 animal studies, 479 animals |
Isolated geniposide n/a (isolated compound) not reported here 5-28 days in protective studies · vs untreated animals |
Geniposide raised ALT and AST in the toxicity studies and lowered them in liver-injury models. The authors judged that a mid-range amount for 5-28 days protected the liver without toxicity in animals. Dual action in animals: protective in some conditions, toxic in others. Methods, limits and fundingOutcomes: ALT, AST and inflammatory markers Limitations: Animal studies only; risk of bias rated with the SYRCLE tool but results not read here. Funding and conflicts: No conflicts declared. Read: abstract |
| Zhang 2025 The effect of Zhizi Qinggan decoction in treating hyperthyroidism: A systematic review and meta-analysis Medicine (Baltimore) · PMID 40958262 · DOI |
Meta-analysis |
1320 16 randomized trials, 1,320 people with hyperthyroidism |
Zhizi Qinggan decoction (multi-herb formula) plus methimazole fruit (one herb in a formula) not reported here varied · vs methimazole alone |
The formula plus methimazole beat methimazole alone: free T3 SMD -0.79, free T4 SMD -2.09, TSH SMD 1.99, thyroid volume SMD -1.22, clinical efficacy OR 6.05. The abstract also lists adverse reactions with OR 2.61 as a significant difference; it does not say which group had more. Better thyroid measures with the formula added; effect cannot be assigned to gardenia. (free T3 SMD -0.79 (95% CI -1.11 to -0.47); free T4 SMD -2.09 (-2.91 to -1.28); TSH SMD 1.99 (1.00 to 2.99); adverse reactions OR 2.61 (1.52 to 4.45)) Methods, limits and fundingOutcomes: Thyroid hormones, thyroid volume, clinical effect, symptom score, adverse reactions Limitations: Formula of several herbs; the abstract does not give bias ratings; the authors call for larger trials. Funding and conflicts: No conflicts declared. Read: abstract |
| n/a 2025 FDA approves gardenia (genipin) blue color additive (press announcement, 14 July 2025) US Food and Drug Administration · Source |
Database or regulator record n/a |
n/a | The FDA granted the Gardenia Blue Interest Group's petition to use gardenia (genipin) blue in various foods at levels consistent with good manufacturing practice. n/a Methods, limits and fundingOutcomes: Identity, safety or regulatory status Limitations: Press announcement only; the petition and conditions were not read. Concerns a refined food colour, not the herb. Funding and conflicts: n/a Read: full-text | |
| n/a 2026 Regulator and database records for gardenia fruit: not read LiverTox, NCCIH, EMA/HMPC, WHO, LactMed · Source |
Database or regulator record n/a |
n/a | No page for gardenia fruit was opened in this build. A LiverTox search through NCBI Bookshelf returned no gardenia entry, but that is not proof that no record exists. n/a Methods, limits and fundingOutcomes: Identity, safety or regulatory status Limitations: Absence of a found record is not a safety statement. Funding and conflicts: n/a Read: not-read | |
| n/a 2026 PubChem name lookups: geniposide, genipin, crocin, crocetin PubChem PUG REST (checked 2026-10-25) · Source |
Database or regulator record n/a |
n/a | Geniposide CID 107848 (C17H24O10); genipin CID 442424 (C11H14O5); crocin CID 5281233 (C44H64O24); crocetin CID 5281232 (C20H24O4). n/a Methods, limits and fundingOutcomes: Identity, safety or regulatory status Limitations: Names and formulas only. Funding and conflicts: n/a Read: full-text | |
| n/a 2026 GBIF Backbone Taxonomy species match: Gardenia jasminoides GBIF API (checked 2026-10-25) · Source |
Database or regulator record n/a |
n/a | Gardenia jasminoides J.Ellis returned ACCEPTED, exact match, confidence 98, usage key 5335125, family Rubiaceae, order Gentianales. n/a Methods, limits and fundingOutcomes: Identity, safety or regulatory status Limitations: Taxonomy only. Funding and conflicts: n/a Read: full-text |
What we do not know yet
- No trial of gardenia fruit alone for any condition.
- No human liver case report found, but LiverTox, NCCIH, EMA/HMPC, WHO and LactMed records were not read.
- No pregnancy, breastfeeding or child safety data.
- No interaction studies with blood thinners or diabetes medicines.
- The cold-constitution caution is traditional and unverified here.
How new research is added
New studies are found by a saved PubMed search and placed in a review queue. A person reads each one before it changes any rating or safety wording.
Lab markers
What changed in blood or saliva tests during trials. A changed number is not the same as feeling or being healthier, and we give no "normal ranges".
Hormonal 1
Thyroid hormones (free T3, free T4, TSH)
Lowered in trials
Blood measures of thyroid activity.
Very low certaintyResults and what it means
Why it was measured
They show how overactive the thyroid is.
Statistical vs. clinical meaning
Statistically significant, but in a multi-herb formula.
Safety implication
Do not adjust thyroid drugs without a doctor.
| Study | Result | People | Product |
|---|---|---|---|
| 16 | Free T3 SMD -0.79; free T4 SMD -2.09; TSH SMD 1.99 | 1,320 adults with hyperthyroidism, 16 trials | Zhizi Qinggan decoction plus methimazole vs methimazole alone |
Organ function 1
Bilirubin (newborn jaundice)
Lowered in trials
A yellow pigment from old red blood cells that builds up in jaundice.
Very low certaintyResults and what it means
Why it was measured
It shows how severe jaundice is.
Statistical vs. clinical meaning
A lower bilirubin is a lab change; the formula cannot be credited to gardenia.
Safety implication
Newborn jaundice needs medical care.
| Study | Result | People | Product |
|---|---|---|---|
| 2 | Total bilirubin WMD -30.34 (95% CI -35.44 to -25.23); direct WMD -15.03; indirect WMD -11.22; units not given in the abstract | 2,221 newborns, 19 trials | Four-herb formula plus phototherapy vs phototherapy alone |
Other 1
Deep-sleep brain waves (delta power) and night wakings
Mixed results in trials
Delta power is a brain-wave measure of deep sleep. Wakening episodes are counted by a wrist sensor.
Low certaintyResults and what it means
Why it was measured
Used to test sleep quality objectively.
Statistical vs. clinical meaning
Small, short trials of an isolated pigment.
Safety implication
None reported in the abstracts.
Safety
What studies and official sources say about side effects, medicines and who should check first. Each point shows what kind of evidence it comes from.
Main points to know 4
- Liver: animal harm at high amounts, no human case found. Isolated geniposide, the main compound, injured rat livers at high amounts. A 2017 paper said no clinical reports of fruit toxicity had been published. We searched PubMed for human liver-injury case reports with gardenia fruit and found none, but LiverTox was not read, so a report may exist. Animal research 9 5 15
- Bowel vein scarring with long-term Asian patent medicines. A Japanese survey of 222 patients with mesenteric phlebosclerosis found that 70.4% of those with a known herbal history had used products containing gardenia fruit, often for years. Two case reports describe it. The authors say gardenia may not be the cause. Case series 7 4 13
- Pregnancy, breastfeeding and children: no data. No pregnancy, breastfeeding or child safety study of gardenia fruit was found. Avoid unless a doctor says otherwise. Gap 18
- Traditional caution for cold, weak digestion. Zhi zi is considered a cold-natured herb in Chinese medicine, and traditional teaching advises caution when the gut is weak, cold or loose. We did not open a source for this, so treat it as traditional teaching. Traditional use
Side effects 3
| Effect | How often | Severity and recovery | Evidence |
|---|---|---|---|
| Chronic diarrhoea and bowel vein scarring (mesenteric phlebosclerosis) Linked to years of use of Kampo or Chinese patent medicines that contain gardenia fruit. Association, not proven cause. No rate is known. | Not established | Moderate to serious Better in people who stopped, per the survey; one case's diarrhoea improved after stopping | Case series 7 4 13 |
| Diarrhoea, rash or fever as reported adverse reactions In newborn jaundice trials of a four-herb formula these were less common in the formula group (RR 0.44). That does not show the fruit is gentle on the gut. | Not established | Mild to unknown Unknown | Meta-analysis 2 |
| Liver and kidney injury at high amounts A 2022 review says an increasing number of studies show multiple organ injury, mainly liver and kidney, and that few toxicity studies exist. | Not established | Serious in animals Unknown in people | Animal research 10 9 |
Liver
No human case of liver injury from gardenia fruit was found in our PubMed searches, and the NIH LiverTox page was not read. In rats, isolated geniposide caused dose-related liver injury (raised ALT, AST, ALP, GGT and bile acids), and a 2025 rat study at a very high amount linked it to a blocked bile-acid signal (FXR) and inflammasome activation. A 25-study animal meta-analysis found geniposide both protective and toxic depending on the setting. Mouse work suggests pairing with coptis lowered the enzyme rise (summary-only). 9 5 15 14 18
How often. No rate is known. No human cases found; animal findings come from isolated geniposide, not whole products.
Monitoring. No official monitoring advice was found. Seek care for yellow skin or eyes, dark urine, pale stools, itching or severe tiredness.
This is a safety connection. It is not evidence that Gardenia supports liver health.
Medicines and supplements 4
| With | Why it matters | Importance | Evidence | What to do |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Medicines cleared by the liver (CYP450 enzymes) prescription | A review proposes that genipin can bind proteins and inactivate liver CYP450 enzymes in animals. No human interaction study was found. | Unknown. | Pharmacological theory Very low certainty 1 | Ask a pharmacist before combining, especially with narrow-margin medicines. |
| Diabetes medicines (blood-sugar lowering) prescription | Lab and animal work lists anti-diabetic activity for the fruit; added low blood sugar is a theory only. | Unknown; no human study found. | Pharmacological theory Very low certainty 10 | Ask the prescriber; tell them if you use it. |
| Blood thinners (warfarin, antiplatelets) prescription | No study was found either way. | Unknown. Absence of reports is not proof of safety. | Gap Not enough evidence 18 | Ask the prescriber before combining. |
| Other liver-affecting herbs or medicines herb | Stacking products that can strain the liver is a theoretical concern given the animal data. | Unknown. | Pharmacological theory Very low certainty 10 | Tell your doctor about every herbal product you use. |
Who should check first 4
| Situation | Advice | Evidence |
|---|---|---|
| Pregnancy and breastfeeding | Avoid; no human safety data were found. | Gap 18 |
| Existing liver disease or taking liver-straining medicines | Ask a doctor first; animal data show a narrow safe window. | Animal research 9 15 |
| Ongoing diarrhoea or a weak, cold digestion | Traditional teaching advises caution; we did not verify this in a source. Long-term patent medicine use has been linked to bowel vein scarring. | Traditional use 7 |
| Long-term daily use of gardenia-containing patent medicines | Review it with a doctor, especially if you have lasting diarrhoea or belly pain. | Case series 7 13 |
Overdose, product quality and regulators
Summary. Toxicity data are from animals and from refined compounds. Human data are limited to case reports and one survey on bowel vein scarring.
Animal. Rats: isolated geniposide caused dose-related liver injury; a 2025 rat study at a very high amount showed severe liver injury. Gardenia blue food colour at the highest diet level tested was the no-adverse-effect level in a rat reproduction study (industry-funded).
Human doses studied. Not given as advice. Human trials used mixed formulas or isolated crocetin.
High dose or long term signals. A review reports liver and kidney injury in animals with over-dosage or long-term use; bowel vein scarring in people after years of patent medicine use.
Overdose response. Not found.
Genotoxicity. Not covered in the sources read.
Toxic plant parts. The dried fruit is the part used. Other plant parts were not assessed here. Refined pigments (blue, yellow) and isolated compounds behave differently from the whole fruit.
No product-testing study was found.
Strength and identity. Content varies by batch, and patent medicines mix many herbs, so the gardenia amount is often unknown. No testing study was found. 1
| Body | Action | Date |
|---|---|---|
| US FDA (United States) | Approved gardenia (genipin) blue as a colour additive in various foods (press announcement). This is a refined pigment, not the herb. source | 2025-07-14 |
When to get medical help
- Yellow skin or eyes, dark urine, pale stools, itching or severe tiredness
- Lasting diarrhoea, belly pain or blood in the stool
- Vomiting that does not settle
- Any of the above while pregnant
Stop the supplement and contact a clinician or emergency service. In the US, Poison Control is 1-800-222-1222.
General information only, not medical advice. Ask a clinician or pharmacist before use, especially with medicines, in pregnancy or with a health condition. See the Natural Remedy Safety guide.
Frequently asked questions
What is gardenia fruit?
Does gardenia fruit help the liver?
Can it harm the liver?
Can it cause diarrhoea or gut problems?
Is it safe in pregnancy or breastfeeding?
No safety data were found, so avoid it unless your doctor advises otherwise.
Can I take it with blood thinners or diabetes medicines?
Is it suitable if I feel cold or have weak digestion?
Chinese medicine teaches that zhi zi is a cold-natured herb and advises caution in that case. We did not verify this in a source, so treat it as traditional teaching and ask a practitioner.
Does it help sleep?
Does it treat an overactive thyroid?
A formula containing gardenia, added to methimazole, improved thyroid measures in 16 trials. It cannot be credited to gardenia, and thyroid medicine should not be changed without a doctor.
Is the gardenia food dye safe?
Where can I find advice on how much to take?
No safe or effective amount for the single herb has been established. Ask a doctor or pharmacist about amounts.
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Editorial transparency
- Written by
- AlternativeMed editorial team. Research compiled with AI assistance, then checked against PubMed records.
- Medical review
- None. This page has not been reviewed by a physician or pharmacist.
- First published
- 2026-10-25
- Last substantive update
- 2026-10-25
- How we research
- We started from our existing gardenia summary, re-read the key PubMed abstracts, and searched for safety reports and human trials. Names were checked in GBIF and NCBI Taxonomy and four compounds in PubChem. Regulator pages were not found or not read.
- How we rate evidence
- See "How we rate evidence" in the Evidence tab.
- Independence
- No product is promoted on this page. No affiliate links are shown. Industry links are flagged where an abstract shows them.
Sources 20
Each source was opened and checked. Where we read only the abstract, it says so. The small numbers in the text point here.
- Cao Q, Du X, Liu A et al.. Iridoids in gardenia fruit: key components in liver disease therapy. Front Nutr. 2025. PMID 41080183. DOI 10.3389/fnut.2025.1667863. (summary-only)
- Feng Q, Huang Z, Su L et al.. Therapeutic efficacy and safety of Yinzhihuang granules with phototherapy in neonatal pathologic jaundice: An updated systematic review and meta-analysis. Phytomedicine. 2022. PMID 35325827. DOI 10.1016/j.phymed.2022.154051. (abstract)
- Foster ML, Mahapatra D, Maronpot RR et al.. Extended one-generation reproductive toxicity study evaluating gardenia blue in Sprague Dawley rats.. Regul Toxicol Pharmacol. 2023. PMID 37611796. DOI 10.1016/j.yrtph.2023.105472. (abstract)
- Hisanaga E, Sano T, Sato K et al.. Mesenteric phlebosclerosis associated with the oral intake of Japanese traditional (Kampo) medicines containing Gardeniae Fructus.. Clin J Gastroenterol. 2021. PMID 34341949. DOI 10.1007/s12328-021-01490-8. (abstract)
- Jin Z, Cheng S, Liu B et al.. Geniposide induces hepatotoxicity via the bile acid-induced activation of NLRP3 inflammasome and regulation of the FXR/PERK/TXNIP pathway. Toxicol Lett. 2025. PMID 41043658. DOI 10.1016/j.toxlet.2025.111740. (abstract)
- Kuratsune H, Umigai N, Takeno R et al.. Effect of crocetin from Gardenia jasminoides Ellis on sleep: a pilot study.. Phytomedicine. 2010. PMID 20537515. DOI 10.1016/j.phymed.2010.03.025. (abstract)
- Shimizu S, Kobayashi T, Tomioka H et al.. Involvement of herbal medicine as a cause of mesenteric phlebosclerosis: results from a large-scale nationwide survey.. J Gastroenterol. 2017. PMID 27220772. DOI 10.1007/s00535-016-1218-9. (abstract)
- Suttawong N, Witayavanitkul N, Chayanupatkul M et al.. Gardenia jasminoides fruit extract ameliorates non-alcoholic steatohepatitis with fibrosis. PLoS One. 2025. PMID 41042784. DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0333800. (summary-only)
- Tian J, Zhu J, Yi Y et al.. Dose-related liver injury of Geniposide associated with the alteration in bile acid synthesis and transportation. Sci Rep. 2017. PMID 28827769. DOI 10.1038/s41598-017-09131-2. (abstract)
- Tian J, Qin S, Han J et al.. A review of the ethnopharmacology, phytochemistry, pharmacology and toxicology of Fructus Gardeniae (Zhi-zi).. J Ethnopharmacol. 2022. PMID 35066066. DOI 10.1016/j.jep.2022.114984. (abstract)
- Tian X, Wang G, Teng F et al.. Zhi Zi Chi decoction (Gardeniae fructus and semen Sojae Praeparatum) attenuates anxious depression via modulating microbiota-gut-brain axis in corticosterone combined with chronic restraint stress-induced mice. CNS Neurosci Ther. 2024. PMID 37905694. DOI 10.1111/cns.14519. (abstract)
- Umigai N, Takeda R, Mori A. Effect of crocetin on quality of sleep: A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, crossover study.. Complement Ther Med. 2018. PMID 30477864. DOI 10.1016/j.ctim.2018.09.003. (abstract)
- Wang M, Wan YX, Liao JW et al.. Idiopathic mesenteric phlebosclerosis missed by a radiologist at initial diagnosis: A case report.. World J Clin Cases. 2024. PMID 38660081. DOI 10.12998/wjcc.v12.i10.1810. (abstract)
- Yan X, Qin D, Zhang W et al.. Compatibility of Coptidis Rhizoma and Gardeniae Fructus in attenuating hepatotoxicity. J Ethnopharmacol. 2025. PMID 39798674. DOI 10.1016/j.jep.2024.119291. (summary-only)
- Zeng X, Jiang J, Liu S et al.. Bidirectional effects of geniposide in liver injury: Preclinical evidence construction based on meta-analysis.. J Ethnopharmacol. 2024. PMID 37598771. DOI 10.1016/j.jep.2023.117061. (abstract)
- Zhang M, Chu J, Xiu C et al.. The effect of Zhizi Qinggan decoction in treating hyperthyroidism: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Medicine (Baltimore). 2025. PMID 40958262. DOI 10.1097/MD.0000000000044483. (abstract)
- n/a. FDA approves gardenia (genipin) blue color additive (press announcement, 14 July 2025). US Food and Drug Administration. 2025. (full-text)
- n/a. Regulator and database records for gardenia fruit: not read. LiverTox, NCCIH, EMA/HMPC, WHO, LactMed. 2026. (not-read)
- n/a. PubChem name lookups: geniposide, genipin, crocin, crocetin. PubChem PUG REST (checked 2026-10-25). 2026. (full-text)
- n/a. GBIF Backbone Taxonomy species match: Gardenia jasminoides. GBIF API (checked 2026-10-25). 2026. (full-text)