Vegetables · Vegetable
Bok Choy
Brassica rapa subsp. chinensis · also called Pak choi, pak-choi, Chinese white cabbage
Bok choy is a leafy cabbage-family vegetable with pale stalks and green leaves, eaten raw or cooked. It contains vitamin K, vitamin C and beta-carotene. Studies of eating more vegetables link them to less heart disease, but bok choy itself has been tested in only a few small studies. The main cautions are warfarin (because of vitamin K), food poisoning from raw produce, and one case report of a severe thyroid problem after very large amounts of raw bok choy.
General information, not medical advice. Last substantive update · Not medically reviewed. A named clinician has not signed off on this page. How this page is made
About Bok Choy
Bok choy is a nutritious cabbage-family vegetable that contains vitamin K, vitamin C and beta-carotene. It is a healthy food, not a proven remedy: most health findings come from studies of vegetables in general, or from mixed meals.
What it is
Bok choy (also spelled pak choi) is Brassica rapa subsp. chinensis, a leafy vegetable in the cabbage family (Brassicaceae). GBIF lists this subspecies as a synonym of the accepted species Brassica rapa. The pale stalks and green leaves are eaten raw or cooked.
USDA data for raw bok choy: 13 kcal per 100 g. One cup of shredded leaves (70 g) has about 9 kcal, 0.7 g fibre, 74 mg calcium, 176 mg potassium, 31.5 mg vitamin C, 46 micrograms folate (DFE), 156 micrograms vitamin A (RAE) and 32 micrograms vitamin K. Cooked values were not read.
What the research shows
The firmest facts are about nutrients: vitamin K is needed for blood to clot, and bok choy contains it. These are not trials of bok choy.
Large reviews of observational studies link eating more vegetables to less heart disease and lower risk of early death. They cannot show cause, and they did not single out bok choy.
Bok choy appears by name in only a few small human studies: a vitamin A trial in children (mixed vegetables), and two single-meal blood sugar trials that disagreed. No trial of bok choy for cancer, blood pressure or cholesterol was found.
Food versus other products
Everything above is about bok choy as food. We found no trial of bok choy powder, juice or extract, so results for such products would not carry over. One small study used a pak choi sprout drink to see how the body handles cabbage-family compounds; it measured no health outcome.
Amounts
This page gives no amounts to eat. Ask a doctor, pharmacist or dietitian what is right for you, especially if you take warfarin or have a thyroid condition.
At a glance
Traditional uses history, not proof
- Eaten as a vegetable, in stir-fries, soups and similar dishes
- Long use as food is not proof that it treats any condition
Studied for research
- Vitamin K for normal blood clotting, high certainty for the nutrient, no bok choy trial
- Vitamin A stores from carotene-rich vegetable meals that included bok choy, low certainty
- Heart disease and early death (eating more vegetables), low certainty, observational
- Blood sugar after a rice meal, mixed results in two small trials
- Cancer risk and glucosinolates, insufficient evidence
- Calcium for bones, insufficient evidence
Main compounds
- Vitamin K (phylloquinone)
- Vitamin C
- Beta-carotene
- Folate
- Calcium
- Glucosinolates
Common forms
- Mature and baby bok choy as food, raw or cooked
- Pak choi sprouts (used in one small metabolism study, not the usual food)
Research links: NHS: Warfarin · 2024 review: brassica vegetables and thyroid function · FDA: Selecting and serving produce safely · Research Library · Genes & Biomarkers Library
What it is and its history
- Accepted scientific name
- Brassica rapa subsp. chinensis
- Naming authority
- (L.) Hanelt (GBIF; GBIF treats this subspecies as a synonym of the accepted species Brassica rapa L.)
- Synonyms
- Name: Brassica rapa var. chinensis (L.) Kitam.; Note: GBIF lists it as a synonym.
- Common names
- Bok choy (English); Pak choi (English); Pak-choi (English); Chinese white cabbage (English)
- Family or group
- Brassicaceae (the cabbage or mustard family), as given by GBIF.
- Classification
- Plantae > Brassicales > Brassicaceae > Brassica > Brassica rapa
- Native range
- Not verified from a source read.
- Habitat
- Not verified from a source read.
- What it looks like
- Roots: Not verified.; Stems: Pale stalks and green leaves are the food (existing summary). Not verified from a primary source.; Leaves: USDA gives household portions of one cup shredded as 70 g, one leaf as 14 g and one head as 840 g.; Flowers: Not verified.; Fruit: Not verified.
- Cultivation
- Not verified from a source read.
- Harvest and processing
- Eaten raw or cooked, mature or as baby bok choy (existing summary and the warfarin scoring paper). Cooking inactivates myrosinase (Linus Pauling Institute).
- Look-alikes and adulterants
- Name: Other cabbage-family vegetables; Note: Napa cabbage, broccoli, kale and cabbage are different vegetables. Studies of 'cruciferous vegetables' pool several of them.
- Sustainability and conservation
- Not assessed.
Photographs
What is inside, and how it may work
What it contains and how those compounds act in cells and animals. Laboratory and animal mechanisms are not proven effects in people.
Main compounds
| Compound | Family | Where it is concentrated | Activity studied | Level of evidence |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Vitamin K (phylloquinone) PubChem 5284607 | vitamin | Leaf USDA: 45.5 micrograms per 100 g raw | Needed for blood-clotting proteins (MedlinePlus). Affects warfarin. 13 17 15 | Human data |
| Vitamin C (ascorbic acid) PubChem 54670067 | vitamin | Leaf USDA: 45 mg per 100 g raw | Composition only; no source read tests bok choy for a vitamin C outcome. 17 | Composition only |
| Beta-carotene PubChem 5280489 | carotenoid | Leaf USDA: 2,680 micrograms per 100 g raw | Provitamin A; the body can turn it into vitamin A. Carrot, bok choy, squash and kangkong meals roughly doubled vitamin A stores in schoolchildren. 6 17 | Human data |
| Lutein (with zeaxanthin) PubChem 5281243 | carotenoid | Leaf USDA: 40 micrograms lutein plus zeaxanthin per 100 g raw | Composition only. 17 | Composition only |
| Glucosinolates (cabbage-family sulfur compounds) | glucosinolate | Not verified Not found for bok choy | Chopping releases myrosinase, which turns glucosinolates into isothiocyanates and related products. Evidence that this lowers cancer risk is insufficient (Linus Pauling Institute). 12 5 | Laboratory research |
Mechanisms, receptors and pathways
| Target or pathway | Gene or receptor | What was found | Level |
|---|---|---|---|
| Vitamin K and blood clotting | Clotting proteins made in the liver (named generally by MedlinePlus) | Vitamin K is needed to make clotting proteins; warfarin works against this, so the vitamin K in food affects the medicine. 13 15 | Human data |
| Glucosinolate breakdown | Myrosinase enzyme | Chopping releases myrosinase, which converts glucosinolates to isothiocyanates. Cooking inactivates it; light steaming under 5 minutes keeps some. In nine people, pak choi sprout epithionitriles were absorbed and excreted in urine. 12 5 | Human data |
Absorption, metabolism and elimination
- Absorption
- Calcium absorption differs widely between foods and calcium oxalate is poorly absorbed (review); no figure for bok choy was found. Pak choi sprout epithionitriles were absorbed in nine people.
- Distribution
- Not found.
- Metabolism
- Pak choi sprout epithionitriles were processed through the mercapturic acid pathway in nine people (abstract).
- Elimination
- 28% and 12% of two epithionitriles were recovered in urine within 24 hours; the third could not be found.
- Bioavailability
- Not established for bok choy nutrients in the sources read.
Isolated compounds versus whole extracts
Everything in this profile is about bok choy as food, except one small study that used a pak choi sprout drink. No trial of bok choy powder, juice or extract was found, and results for such products would not carry over to eating the vegetable.
Nutritional composition
Nutrition from USDA FoodData Central (Cabbage, chinese (pak-choi), raw, FDC 170390, SR Legacy, last updated 4/1/2019, read 2026-10-26). Per 100 g: 13 kcal, 95.3 g water, 1.5 g protein, 0.2 g fat, 2.18 g carbohydrate, 1.0 g fibre, 105 mg calcium, 0.8 mg iron, 19 mg magnesium, 252 mg potassium, 65 mg sodium, 0.159 mg manganese, 45 mg vitamin C, 0.194 mg vitamin B6, 66 micrograms folate (DFE), 223 micrograms vitamin A (RAE), 2,680 micrograms beta-carotene, 40 micrograms lutein plus zeaxanthin and 45.5 micrograms vitamin K. One cup of shredded raw bok choy (70 g) is about 9 kcal, with 0.7 g fibre, 74 mg calcium, 176 mg potassium, 31.5 mg vitamin C, 46 micrograms folate, 156 micrograms vitamin A (RAE) and 32 micrograms vitamin K (per-cup figures are the per-100 g values scaled to 70 g). Figures vary with variety, ripeness and storage. Values for cooked bok choy were not read.
1 high certainty1 mixed findings2 low certainty2 not enough evidence
What was looked at
The 6 benefits and uses checked for Bok Choy, each with how strong the evidence is. Tap one to open it.
- Vitamin K for normal blood clottingHigh certainty
- Vitamin A status from carotene-rich vegetable mealsLow certainty
- Heart disease, cancer and early death (eating more vegetables)Low certainty
- Cancer risk and glucosinolates (cabbage-family compounds)Not enough evidence
- Blood sugar after a rice mealMixed findings
- Calcium for bonesNot enough evidence
Lab markers tracked in the studies
Cardiovascular disease events and deathsTotal-body vitamin A pool and liver vitamin AGlycaemic index of a mixed rice meal
What is Bok Choy good for?
The main studied uses and how strong the human evidence is for each. Many results are for vegetables as a group or for mixed meals, not for bok choy alone.
Benefits, one by one
Each card is a research question, not a promise. Tap a goal to filter. Open a card to see the studies, doses and limits.
Vitamin K for normal blood clotting
High certaintyVitamin K is needed for blood to clot. Bok choy supplies some: USDA lists 45.5 micrograms in 100 g of raw bok choy, about 32 micrograms in one cup (70 g) of shredded leaves. This is a nutrient fact, not a bok choy trial. If you take warfarin, the same vitamin K matters for a different reason: see the Safety tab.
2 studiesRaw bok choy as food. Values vary with variety, ripeness and storage.
Studies, doses and limits
What the trials found
MedlinePlus says vitamin K is needed for blood clotting and lists green leafy vegetables, and Brussels sprouts, broccoli, cauliflower and cabbage, among its food sources. It does not name bok choy. USDA lists 45.5 micrograms of vitamin K (phylloquinone) per 100 g of raw bok choy.
Results
The clotting role of vitamin K is well accepted and bok choy contains it. No trial of bok choy for clotting was read.
Effect sizes as reported
USDA: 45.5 micrograms vitamin K per 100 g raw bok choy; about 32 micrograms per cup of shredded leaves (70 g).
Why this rating
High for the nutrient role and for bok choy containing the vitamin (health-agency statement and USDA data). There is no bok choy-specific trial, and a varied diet normally supplies vitamin K.
Form and dose studied
Raw bok choy as food. Values vary with variety, ripeness and storage.
Who was studied
Anyone eating a varied diet.
Limits
A nutrient fact, not a trial of bok choy. It does not show that extra vitamin K from any source adds benefit in someone who already has enough.
Why researchers looked
Leafy and cabbage-family vegetables are named as vitamin K foods, so people ask what bok choy does for the body.
Traditional use
Bok choy (also called pak choi) is eaten as a vegetable, in stir-fries, soups and similar dishes. Long use as food is not proof that it treats any condition.
Proposed mechanism Authoritative guidance
Vitamin K is used by the liver to make clotting proteins. Without it, blood would not clot (MedlinePlus).
A proposed mechanism does not show that the effect happens in people.
People taking warfarin should keep vitamin K intake steady and ask their clinic; see the Safety tab.
Vitamin A status from carotene-rich vegetable meals
Low certaintyBok choy contains beta-carotene, which the body can turn into vitamin A (USDA: 2,680 micrograms per 100 g). In a 9-week trial in 116 Filipino schoolchildren, meals built around carrots, bok choy, squash and kangkong roughly doubled the body's vitamin A stores. Bok choy was only one of four vegetables.
2 studiesMixed cooked-vegetable meals as food (trial detail: 4.2 mg provitamin…
Studies, doses and limits
What the trials found
A controlled trial gave 116 schoolchildren aged 9 to 12 standardised meals with yellow and green leafy vegetables (carrots, pechay/bok choy, squash, kangkong) for 9 weeks. Total-body vitamin A pool size and liver vitamin A both doubled, serum beta-carotene rose 5-fold and serum retinol did not change significantly. Low liver vitamin A fell from 35% to 7% of children.
Results
Carotene-rich vegetable meals that included bok choy improved vitamin A stores in children. The effect of bok choy alone was not tested.
Effect sizes as reported
Vitamin A pool size 2-fold; liver vitamin A 2-fold; low liver vitamin A 35% to 7% (n = 116).
Why this rating
Low: one trial in a particular group of children, bok choy was one of four vegetables, and the abstract describes no group that ate no vegetables.
Form and dose studied
Mixed cooked-vegetable meals as food (trial detail: 4.2 mg provitamin A carotenoids per day).
Who was studied
Schoolchildren in the Philippines, some with low vitamin A.
Limits
Cannot separate bok choy from the other vegetables. Does not show the same result for well-nourished adults.
Why researchers looked
In places where vitamin A is often low, researchers test whether carotene-rich vegetables can raise vitamin A stores.
Traditional use
Bok choy (also called pak choi) is eaten as a vegetable, in stir-fries, soups and similar dishes. Long use as food is not proof that it treats any condition.
Proposed mechanism Human data
Provitamin A carotenoids such as beta-carotene are converted to vitamin A in the body. The trial measured the result with a stable-isotope dilution method.
A proposed mechanism does not show that the effect happens in people.
None specific to eating the vegetable. Beta-carotene capsules are a different matter and are not covered here.
Heart disease, cancer and early death (eating more vegetables)
Low certaintyLarge reviews of observational studies link eating more vegetables, including cruciferous and green leafy ones, to less heart disease and a lower chance of early death. These studies did not single out bok choy, and they cannot show that vegetables are the cause.
1 studiesWhole vegetables eaten as food.
Studies, doses and limits
What the trials found
A review of 95 prospective studies found that, for fruit and vegetables combined, each extra 200 g a day went with 8% lower cardiovascular disease risk (RR 0.92), 3% lower total cancer risk (RR 0.97) and 10% lower all-cause mortality (RR 0.90). Inverse associations were seen for green leafy and cruciferous vegetables with cardiovascular disease and early death. The authors say the death estimates apply only if the links are causal.
Results
Observational links to lower risk. Bok choy is a cruciferous, leafy vegetable but was not analysed alone.
Effect sizes as reported
Per 200 g/day fruit and vegetables: CVD RR 0.92 (0.90-0.95); total cancer RR 0.97 (0.95-0.99); all-cause mortality RR 0.90 (0.87-0.93).
Why this rating
Low, because the evidence is observational: people who eat more vegetables differ from others in many ways. The studies cover many vegetables, not bok choy specifically.
Form and dose studied
Whole vegetables eaten as food.
Who was studied
Adults in prospective cohort studies.
Limits
Cannot show cause. No trial of bok choy for heart disease or cancer was found.
Why researchers looked
Population studies ask whether people who eat more vegetables stay healthier.
Traditional use
Bok choy (also called pak choi) is eaten as a vegetable, in stir-fries, soups and similar dishes. Long use as food is not proof that it treats any condition.
Proposed mechanism Unknown
Not established. Which nutrient or plant compound might matter, if any, is not shown by the studies read.
A proposed mechanism does not show that the effect happens in people.
None specific beyond the cautions on the Safety tab.
Cancer risk and glucosinolates (cabbage-family compounds)
Not enough evidenceCabbage-family vegetables such as bok choy contain glucosinolates, which turn into isothiocyanates when the leaf is chopped or chewed. Lab and animal work is interesting, but the Linus Pauling Institute says there is not enough evidence that these compounds, taken in through vegetables, lower cancer risk in people.
2 studiesVegetables as food; sprout drink in the small study (not mature bok c…
Studies, doses and limits
What the trials found
The Linus Pauling Institute says high intakes of cruciferous vegetables have been associated with lower cancer risk, but there is insufficient evidence that exposure to isothiocyanates through eating these vegetables lowers cancer risk. A small human study gave nine people a pak choi sprout drink and showed that glucosinolate breakdown products are absorbed and passed in urine; it measured no health outcome. We did not find a source measuring glucosinolates in mature bok choy.
Results
No human trial shows that bok choy lowers cancer risk.
Why this rating
Insufficient: a health-agency summary says the evidence is not enough, and the only human work found on bok choy compounds was a nine-person metabolism study of sprouts.
Form and dose studied
Vegetables as food; sprout drink in the small study (not mature bok choy).
Who was studied
Adults.
Limits
Mostly lab and animal work. Isothiocyanate content of bok choy was not read from a source.
Why researchers looked
Isothiocyanates affect many cancer-related pathways in cells and animals, so researchers ask if eating cruciferous vegetables matters.
Traditional use
Bok choy (also called pak choi) is eaten as a vegetable, in stir-fries, soups and similar dishes. Long use as food is not proof that it treats any condition.
Proposed mechanism Preliminary mechanism
Chopping or chewing releases the plant enzyme myrosinase, which converts glucosinolates to isothiocyanates. Cooking inactivates myrosinase, though light steaming under 5 minutes keeps some (Linus Pauling Institute).
A proposed mechanism does not show that the effect happens in people.
None specific.
Blood sugar after a rice meal
Mixed findingsTwo small trials looked at bok choy eaten with rice. In one, cooked pak choi with rice gave a lower blood sugar response than rice alone in 16 healthy volunteers. In the other, bok choy with a rice meal had no significant effect in 31 women. The results do not agree.
2 studiesCooked bok choy or pak choi eaten with rice as a meal.
Studies, doses and limits
What the trials found
A randomised crossover trial in 16 healthy volunteers found that cooked pak choi eaten with cooked rice had a significantly lower glycaemic index (71) than rice alone, and its in vitro starch-digestion index was 83.8% of the rice control; blended versions did not differ significantly. A study in 31 women compared rice alone with rice plus bok choy or spinach and found no significant effect of the leafy vegetables on the blood sugar response, which varied a lot between people.
Results
Mixed: lower glycaemic index in one small trial, no significant effect in another.
Effect sizes as reported
Glycaemic index of cooked pak choi plus rice: 71 (rice alone is the comparison). No effect size in the abstract for the second trial.
Why this rating
Mixed: two small single-meal trials in healthy people point in different directions. Neither tests long-term blood sugar control or people with diabetes.
Form and dose studied
Cooked bok choy or pak choi eaten with rice as a meal.
Who was studied
Healthy adults; women in the second study.
Limits
Single meals only. Not tested in people with diabetes. Does not show any effect on long-term blood sugar.
Why researchers looked
Vegetables added to a starchy meal might slow how fast the starch is digested.
Traditional use
Bok choy (also called pak choi) is eaten as a vegetable, in stir-fries, soups and similar dishes. Long use as food is not proof that it treats any condition.
Proposed mechanism Preliminary mechanism
The first study suggests the texture of the whole vegetable slows starch digestion, because blended versions did not lower the response. This is the authors' suggestion, not proof.
A proposed mechanism does not show that the effect happens in people.
None specific. People with diabetes who change their eating should speak to their care team.
Calcium for bones
Not enough evidenceBok choy contains calcium (USDA: 105 mg per 100 g). How much of it the body absorbs from bok choy was not found in the sources read. A review says absorption differs widely between foods, from under 10% to over 50%, and that calcium bound to oxalate is poorly absorbed.
2 studiesRaw bok choy as food.
Studies, doses and limits
What the trials found
USDA lists 105 mg of calcium per 100 g of raw bok choy. The food-matrix review reports that absorption ranges from under 10% to over 50% across foods and that calcium from non-dairy foods can have lower absorbable levels. The abstract does not mention bok choy.
Results
Bok choy contains calcium. No source read measured how well it is absorbed or whether eating it protects bones.
Effect sizes as reported
USDA: 105 mg calcium per 100 g raw bok choy; about 74 mg per cup of shredded leaves (70 g).
Why this rating
Insufficient: composition data only. No source read tests absorption from bok choy or bone outcomes.
Form and dose studied
Raw bok choy as food.
Limits
Bok choy's oxalate content and calcium absorption were not found in the sources read.
Why researchers looked
Leafy greens are often named as non-dairy calcium sources.
Traditional use
Bok choy (also called pak choi) is eaten as a vegetable, in stir-fries, soups and similar dishes. Long use as food is not proof that it treats any condition.
Proposed mechanism Authoritative guidance
Calcium must be dissolved to be absorbed. Calcium oxalate complexes stay insoluble, so they are poorly absorbed (review of food-matrix effects).
A proposed mechanism does not show that the effect happens in people.
None specific.
Connections to the rest of health
How Bok Choy connects to the rest of our health knowledge graph. Every link says what kind of connection it is. A safety link (for example to the liver) is a warning, not a benefit. A study that merely mentions a topic never creates a benefit link.
Explore every connection: goals, body systems, organs, symptoms, genes
B. Body systems
| Connected to | Kind of connection | Evidence status | Context | Studies |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Cardiovascular System | Biological association | High certainty | Studied for: Vitamin K for normal blood clotting Studied for: Heart disease, cancer and early death (eating more vegetables) | 13 17 1 |
| Immune System | Biological association | High certainty | Studied for: Vitamin K for normal blood clotting Studied for: Vitamin A status from carotene-rich vegetable meals | 13 17 6 |
| Whole Body | Biological association | Not enough evidence | Studied for: Cancer risk and glucosinolates (cabbage-family compounds) | 12 5 |
| Metabolism Weight | Biological association | Mixed findings | Studied for: Blood sugar after a rice meal | 9 7 |
| Musculoskeletal System | Biological association | Not enough evidence | Studied for: Calcium for bones | 17 8 |
C. Body parts and organs
| Connected to | Kind of connection | Evidence status | Context | Studies |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Thyroid | Adverse effect or risk | Case report | One case report of a severe underactive thyroid; a 2024 review found no adverse thyroid effect from brassica vegetables in the diet. One case report of a severe underactive thyroid after very large amounts of raw bok choy; a 2024 review found no adverse thyroid effect from brassica vegetables in the diet. Preparation or compound: Raw bok choy in very large amounts |
3 4 |
I. Biomarkers
| Connected to | Kind of connection | Evidence status | Context | Studies |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Cardiovascular disease events and deaths | Biological association | Low certainty | Measured in trials: lowered. A lab change is not the same as a health benefit. | 1 |
| Total-body vitamin A pool and liver vitamin A | Biological association | Low certainty | Measured in trials: raised. A lab change is not the same as a health benefit. | 6 |
| Glycaemic index of a mixed rice meal | Biological association | Mixed findings | Measured in trials: mixed. A lab change is not the same as a health benefit. | 9 7 |
K. Biological pathways
| Connected to | Kind of connection | Evidence status | Context | Studies |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Vitamin K | Preliminary mechanism | Human | Bok choy contains vitamin K; it is needed for clotting and affects warfarin. | 13 15 |
| Vitamin A (from beta-carotene) | Preliminary mechanism | Human | Bok choy contains beta-carotene; carotene-rich vegetable meals raised vitamin A stores in schoolchildren. | 6 |
| Calcium | Preliminary mechanism | Composition only | Bok choy contains calcium; absorption from bok choy was not found. | 17 8 |
L. Active compounds
| Connected to | Kind of connection | Evidence status | Context | Studies |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Vitamin K (phylloquinone) | Biological association | Human | Needed for blood-clotting proteins (MedlinePlus). Affects warfarin. Preparation or compound: Leaf |
13 17 15 |
| Vitamin C (ascorbic acid) | Biological association | Composition only | Composition only; no source read tests bok choy for a vitamin C outcome. Preparation or compound: Leaf |
17 |
| Beta-carotene | Biological association | Human | Provitamin A; the body can turn it into vitamin A. Carrot, bok choy, squash and kangkong meals roughly doubled vitamin A stores in schoolchildren. Preparation or compound: Leaf |
6 17 |
| Lutein (with zeaxanthin) | Biological association | Composition only | Composition only. Preparation or compound: Leaf |
17 |
| Glucosinolates (cabbage-family sulfur compounds) | Biological association | In vitro | Chopping releases myrosinase, which turns glucosinolates into isothiocyanates and related products. Evidence that this lowers cancer risk is insufficient (Linus Pauling Institute). Preparation or compound: Not verified |
12 5 |
Each connection is stored with the ingredient, the connected record, the kind of connection, the evidence status, the supporting studies, the preparation or compound involved, and a review date (last reviewed October 26, 2026).
Evidence at a glance: what changed in 3 lab markers
Tap a number to show only those markers. Counts are markers, not people.
The evidence
The research centre for Bok Choy. Every record here was checked against PubMed or the publisher's page; we never list a study we have not verified.
Evidence by outcome
Bars show how many studies we found for each outcome, not how well it works. People are added up across trials only (reviews are not added, to avoid double counting).
How we rate evidence
High certainty
Several well-run trials or reviews agree; further research is unlikely to change the picture much.
Moderate certainty
Good trials point the same way, but some doubt remains.
Low certainty
Small, short or inconsistent trials. The finding could change with better research.
Very low certainty
Very little or very weak human data. Treat as a possibility only.
Mixed findings
Trials or reviews disagree with each other.
Not enough evidence
Not enough human research to say either way.
Evidence against
Good research found no benefit, or found harm.
We take the reviewers' own risk-of-bias and GRADE statements where they exist, and otherwise judge from study size, design, consistency, directness and whether a product matches what is sold. Many publications do not make evidence high. Method note: We started from our existing bok choy summary, re-checked nutrition at USDA FoodData Central, read the health agency pages (NHS, MedlinePlus, NIDDK, FDA, WHO) and the Linus Pauling Institute, and searched PubMed for bok choy and pak choi. Only abstracts were read for studies; the thyroid case report has no abstract, so only its title was read. Items we could not verify are flagged in the research gaps.
Study library: every study we checked 17
| Study | Design | People | Product, dose, length | Result |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Aune 2017 Fruit and vegetable intake and the risk of cardiovascular disease, total cancer and all-cause mortality-a systematic review and dose-response meta-analysis of prospective studies. Int J Epidemiol · PMID 28338764 · DOI |
Systematic review meta analysis |
95 prospective studies (142 publications) of adults | Fruit and vegetables as food (bok choy not singled out) Whole fruit and vegetables Per 200 g/day of fruit and vegetables combined (study unit, not advice) Prospective studies · vs Lower versus higher intake |
For fruits and vegetables combined, per 200 g/day: cardiovascular disease RR 0.92 (95% CI 0.90-0.95), total cancer RR 0.97 (0.95-0.99) and all-cause mortality RR 0.90 (0.87-0.93). Inverse associations were seen for green leafy vegetables, cruciferous vegetables and salads with cardiovascular disease and all-cause mortality, and for green-yellow vegetables and cruciferous vegetables with total cancer risk. The premature-death estimates hold only if the links are causal. Lower risk with higher intake (observational) (See results) Methods, limits and fundingOutcomes: Cardiovascular disease, cancer and all-cause death Limitations: Observational. People who eat more vegetables differ from others in many ways, so cause is not shown. Bok choy is not analysed on its own in the abstract. Heterogeneity was high for some outcomes (I2 83% for all-cause mortality). Funding and conflicts: Not stated in the abstract. Read: abstract |
| Chang 2014 A practical approach to minimize the interaction of dietary vitamin K with warfarin. J Clin Pharm Ther · PMID 24383939 · DOI |
Other |
Proposal for people on warfarin in Taiwan (no patients tested) | 23 vitamin K-rich vegetables, including (baby) bok choy, scored by vitamin K per serving Vegetables |
Vegetables were scored from published vitamin K values. Spinach and garland chrysanthemum scored 5 points per bowl; (baby) bok choy, amaranth and garden lettuce scored 4. The authors propose keeping the weekly score constant and say a randomised trial would be useful to test the idea. A scoring idea, not a tested result (Not applicable) Methods, limits and fundingOutcomes: A weekly vitamin K score for patient counselling Limitations: Not a trial. Scores come from published food tables, not from measurements in the study, and the approach has not been tested in patients. Funding and conflicts: Not stated in the abstract. Read: abstract |
| Chu 2010 Myxedema coma induced by ingestion of raw bok choy. N Engl J Med · PMID 20484407 · DOI |
Case report |
Case report (letter to the journal) | Raw bok choy |
Only the title and citation record were read; PubMed has no abstract for this letter. The title reports myxedema coma (a severe form of underactive thyroid) induced by eating raw bok choy. Not available (Not available) Methods, limits and fundingOutcomes: Severe underactive thyroid (myxedema coma) Limitations: No abstract or full text was read, so the amount, duration and the person's other health problems are unknown to us. One case cannot show how common this is. Funding and conflicts: Not stated. Read: title-only |
| Galanty 2024 Do Brassica Vegetables Affect Thyroid Function?-A Comprehensive Systematic Review. Int J Mol Sci · PMID 38612798 · DOI |
Systematic review human, animal and in vitro |
123 articles: cell, animal and human studies | Brassica vegetables and extracts (several species) Vegetables and extracts Not given in the abstract Varied · vs Varied |
The vast majority of results cast doubt on earlier assumptions that brassica plants have antithyroid effects in humans. The authors say including brassica vegetables in the daily diet, particularly with adequate iodine intake, poses no adverse effects on thyroid function. No adverse thyroid effect found for brassica vegetables in the diet (Not applicable) Methods, limits and fundingOutcomes: Thyroid mass and structure, TSH, T3, T4, iodine uptake Limitations: Mixes cell, animal and human studies. Bok choy is not named in the abstract. A review cannot rule out a rare reaction in one person. Funding and conflicts: Authors declare no conflicts of interest. Read: abstract |
| Hoffmann 2023 Metabolism and Recovery of Epithionitriles from Glucosinolates-A Human Intervention Study. Mol Nutr Food Res · PMID 36373491 · DOI |
Other |
9 9 participants |
A drink made from white cabbage sprouts or pak choi sprouts Sprouts (young seedlings, not mature bok choy) Single drink |
After the sprout drink, two epithionitrile products were absorbed, processed by the body and passed in urine (28% and 12% recovered within 24 hours); a third could not be found, so another pathway must exist. Descriptive: how the body handles these compounds (Not applicable) Methods, limits and fundingOutcomes: Breakdown products of glucosinolates in blood and urine Limitations: Nine people, sprouts rather than mature bok choy, and no health outcome measured. Funding and conflicts: Not stated in the abstract. Read: abstract |
| Ribaya-Mercado 2007 Carotene-rich plant foods ingested with minimal dietary fat enhance the total-body vitamin A pool size in Filipino schoolchildren as assessed by stable-isotope-dilution methodology. Am J Clin Nutr · PMID 17413103 · DOI |
Controlled trial |
116 116 schoolchildren aged 9 to 12 in the Philippines |
Standardised meals with yellow and green leafy vegetables: carrots, pechay (bok choy), squash and kangkong Vegetables 4.2 mg provitamin A carotenoids per day from the meals, with 7, 15 or 29 g fat per day in three groups (trial detail, not advice) 9 weeks, 5 days a week · vs Three fat-level groups (no vegetable-free group described in the abstract) |
In all three groups, serum beta-carotene rose 5-fold, total-body vitamin A pool size 2-fold and liver vitamin A 2-fold; serum retinol did not change significantly. The share of children with low liver vitamin A fell from 35% to 7%. The authors conclude carotene-rich yellow and green leafy vegetables, eaten with minimal fat, improve vitamin A status. Vitamin A pool doubled in all groups (Not given in the abstract) Methods, limits and fundingOutcomes: Total-body vitamin A pool size, liver vitamin A, serum carotenoids and retinol Limitations: Bok choy was one of four vegetables, so its own effect cannot be separated. The abstract describes no comparison group that ate no vegetables. Children in the Philippines, some with low vitamin A. Funding and conflicts: Not stated in the abstract. Read: abstract |
| Sayegh 2021 Inter-Individual Variation in Postprandial Glycemic Responses in Women Co-Ingesting Green Leafy Vegetables with a Carbohydrate Meal: Interactions with the Sirtuin System. Mol Nutr Food Res · PMID 33852192 · DOI |
Controlled trial |
31 31 women |
Rice with bok choy, rice with spinach, or rice alone (75 g available carbohydrate) Leaves Single test meals on separate occasions · vs Rice alone |
Eating green leafy vegetables with the carbohydrate meal had no significant effect on the blood sugar response, which varied a lot between people. The response was linked to age and to the activity of sirtuin genes. No significant effect (Not given in the abstract) Methods, limits and fundingOutcomes: Blood sugar, insulin, adropin and lipids after the meal Limitations: Small, single meals, high person-to-person variation. Bok choy and spinach results are reported together in the abstract. Funding and conflicts: Not stated in the abstract. Read: abstract |
| Shkembi 2021 Calcium Absorption from Food Products: Food Matrix Effects. Nutrients · PMID 35011055 · DOI |
Narrative review n/a |
Review of calcium absorption from foods | Calcium in foods Food matrix |
Calcium absorption ranges from under 10% to over 50% of the calcium in different foods. Calcium oxalate complexes remain insoluble and poorly absorbable. For calcium from non-dairy foods, lower absorbable calcium can limit the contribution to the body's needs. Absorption varies widely by food (Not applicable) Methods, limits and fundingOutcomes: Fraction of food calcium absorbed Limitations: Bok choy is not named in the abstract, so the review does not tell us how well calcium from bok choy is absorbed. Funding and conflicts: Authors declare no conflict of interest. Read: abstract |
| Zhu 2018 Acute effects of non-homogenised and homogenised vegetables added to rice-based meals on postprandial glycaemic responses and in vitro carbohydrate digestion. Br J Nutr · PMID 30355395 · DOI |
Controlled trial |
16 16 healthy volunteers (randomised crossover) |
Cooked pak choi eaten with cooked rice, compared with rice alone (cauliflower and eggplant also tested) Cooked vegetable Not given in the abstract Single test meals on separate days · vs Rice alone |
Cooked pak choi with rice had a significantly lower glycaemic index (71) than rice alone; the hydrolysis index of the pak choi and rice meal was 83.8% of the rice control. The homogenised (blended) versions did not differ significantly from rice. The authors suggest the texture of the vegetable may play a role. Lower glycaemic index of the mixed meal (71) (Not given in the abstract) Methods, limits and fundingOutcomes: Blood sugar response after the meal (glycaemic index), in vitro starch digestion Limitations: Small, healthy volunteers, single meals. It tells us about one meal, not about long-term blood sugar control or diabetes. Funding and conflicts: Not stated in the abstract. Read: abstract |
| s-fda-produce FDA: Selecting and Serving Produce Safely · Source |
Health agency n/a |
Methods, limits and fundingRead: full-text | ||
| s-gbif-brassica-rapa GBIF Backbone: Brassica rapa subsp. chinensis (L.) Hanelt (usageKey 3042702) · Source |
Reference database n/a |
Methods, limits and fundingRead: full-text | ||
| s-lpi-itc Linus Pauling Institute, Oregon State University: Isothiocyanates · Source |
Health agency n/a |
Methods, limits and fundingRead: full-text | ||
| s-medlineplus-vitk MedlinePlus: Vitamin K · Source |
Health agency n/a |
Methods, limits and fundingRead: full-text | ||
| s-medlineplus-warfarin MedlinePlus Drug Information: Warfarin · Source |
Health agency n/a |
Methods, limits and fundingRead: full-text | ||
| s-nhs-warfarin NHS: Warfarin · Source |
Health agency n/a |
Methods, limits and fundingRead: full-text | ||
| s-niddk-stones NIDDK: Eating, diet and nutrition for kidney stones · Source |
Health agency n/a |
Methods, limits and fundingRead: full-text | ||
| s-usda-fdc-170390 USDA FoodData Central: Cabbage, chinese (pak-choi), raw (FDC 170390) · Source |
Reference database n/a |
Methods, limits and fundingRead: full-text |
What we do not know yet
- No trial of eating bok choy alone was found for heart disease, cancer, blood pressure, clotting or vitamin A status.
- Vegetable-intake studies pool many vegetables, and a bok choy-only result was not in the abstract read.
- The thyroid case report was read as a title and record only, so the amount and details are unknown to us.
- Oxalate, glucosinolate content, pesticide residues, heavy metals, nitrate and allergy were not found or not researched.
- Cooked and baby bok choy values and the effect of cooking on vitamins were not read.
How new research is added
New studies are found by a saved PubMed search and placed in a review queue before the page changes.
Lab markers
What changed in blood or saliva tests during trials. A changed number is not the same as feeling or being healthier, and we give no "normal ranges".
Other 3
Cardiovascular disease events and deaths
Lowered in trials
How many people in a study develop heart disease or stroke, or die of it.
Low certaintyResults and what it means
Why it was measured
These are the outcomes that matter most to health, so population studies count them.
Statistical vs. clinical meaning
An association in observational studies, not proof that vegetables prevent disease.
Safety implication
None specific.
| Study | Result | People | Product |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | Fruit and vegetables combined, per 200 g/day: CVD RR 0.92 (95% CI 0.90-0.95); all-cause mortality RR 0.90 (0.87-0.93) | Adults in 95 prospective studies | Fruit and vegetables as food (bok choy not singled out) |
Total-body vitamin A pool and liver vitamin A
Raised in trials
How much vitamin A the body holds in store, measured with a tracer method, and the concentration in the liver.
Low certaintyResults and what it means
Why it was measured
Serum retinol is kept steady by the body, so stores are a better sign of vitamin A status.
Statistical vs. clinical meaning
One trial of mixed vegetables in a group of children who often had low vitamin A.
Safety implication
None specific.
| Study | Result | People | Product |
|---|---|---|---|
| 6 | Total-body vitamin A pool size and liver vitamin A rose about 2-fold; low liver vitamin A fell from 35% to 7%; serum retinol unchanged | 116 schoolchildren aged 9 to 12 | Meals with carrots, bok choy, squash and kangkong for 9 weeks (bok choy not tested alone) |
Glycaemic index of a mixed rice meal
Mixed results in trials
How quickly blood sugar rises after a meal compared with a reference food.
Mixed findingsResults and what it means
Why it was measured
A lower, slower rise after a meal is often used as a sign of better blood sugar handling.
Statistical vs. clinical meaning
Two small single-meal studies disagree; neither measures long-term blood sugar.
Safety implication
None specific.
| Study | Result | People | Product |
|---|---|---|---|
| 9 | Cooked pak choi plus rice: glycaemic index 71, significantly lower than rice alone; blended versions not significantly different | 16 healthy volunteers, randomised crossover | Cooked pak choi with cooked rice (single meal) |
| 7 | Rice with bok choy or spinach: no significant effect on postprandial glycaemic response | 31 women | Rice with bok choy (single meal) |
Safety
What studies and official sources say about side effects, medicines and who should check first. Each point shows what kind of evidence it comes from.
Main points to know 4
- Warfarin: bok choy contains vitamin K, so keep your intake steady and ask your clinic. The NHS says foods high in vitamin K, such as broccoli, spinach and other green leafy vegetables, can affect how warfarin works, and that you can still eat them but should talk to your warfarin clinic. MedlinePlus says to eat consistent amounts of vitamin K foods from week to week and to talk to your doctor before changing your diet. USDA lists 45.5 micrograms of vitamin K per 100 g of raw bok choy, less than spinach but still a source. Do not change a prescribed medicine on your own. Authoritative guidance 15 14 13 17 2
- Thyroid: one case report of a severe problem after very large amounts of raw bok choy. A 2010 letter in the New England Journal of Medicine is titled 'Myxedema coma induced by ingestion of raw bok choy'. We could read only the title and citation record, so we cannot describe the amounts or the person. A 2024 review of 123 studies found that eating brassica vegetables in the diet, particularly with enough iodine, poses no adverse effects on thyroid function. If you have a thyroid condition or take thyroid medicine, ask your clinician. Case report 3 4
- Food poisoning from raw produce. The FDA says children, older adults, pregnant women and people with weakened immune systems can be especially vulnerable to foodborne illness. Wash fresh produce under running water, do not use soap, keep cut or packaged produce at 40 F (4 C) or below, and keep it away from raw meat. Authoritative guidance 10
- Kidney stones: bok choy's oxalate content was not found. NIDDK lists nuts, peanuts, rhubarb, spinach and wheat bran as foods to consider avoiding after calcium oxalate stones. Bok choy is not on that list, but we found no source stating its oxalate content, so we make no claim either way. Ask a clinician about your stone type. Authoritative guidance 16
Side effects 2
| Effect | How often | Severity and recovery | Evidence |
|---|---|---|---|
| Severe underactive thyroid (myxedema coma) reported after eating raw bok choy One case report; only the title and citation record were read. It cannot show how often this happens. The 2024 review found no adverse thyroid effect from brassica vegetables in the diet. | Not established | serious Not stated in the record we read | Case report 3 |
| Allergic reaction Our PubMed searches for bok choy or pak choi together with allergy found no records. Any food can cause an allergic reaction, so an absence of reports is not proof of safety. | Not established | not stated Not stated | Unknown |
Liver
No liver injury from eating bok choy was found. A liver-safety source (such as LiverTox) was not searched for this food page.
How often. No frequency was found.
Monitoring. No agency monitoring advice was found.
This is a safety connection. It is not evidence that Bok Choy supports liver health.
Medicines and supplements 3
| With | Why it matters | Importance | Evidence | What to do |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Warfarin (blood thinner) prescription | Vitamin K helps blood clot, and warfarin works by lowering vitamin K activity. Bok choy contains vitamin K (USDA: 45.5 micrograms per 100 g raw). | The NHS says you can still eat foods high in vitamin K but should ask your warfarin clinic. MedlinePlus says to eat consistent amounts week to week. Neither page names bok choy; a Taiwanese proposal scored baby bok choy as a high vitamin K vegetable, just below spinach. | Authoritative guidance High certainty 15 14 13 17 2 | Ask your warfarin clinic. Do not change your medicine on your own. The NHS says do not take vitamin K supplements while taking warfarin. |
| Vitamin K supplements supplement | Same vitamin as in bok choy, in concentrated form. | The NHS says not to take vitamin K supplements while taking warfarin. | Authoritative guidance High certainty 15 | Ask a clinician or pharmacist first. |
| Thyroid medicine (for example levothyroxine) prescription | Not established. | No source read describes an interaction between eating bok choy and thyroid medicine. The case report is about a person eating raw bok choy, not about a medicine. | Unknown Not enough evidence 3 4 | If you take thyroid medicine, ask your clinician or pharmacist. |
Who should check first 5
| Situation | Advice | Evidence |
|---|---|---|
| Taking warfarin | Keep vitamin K intake steady and follow your warfarin clinic's advice. Do not stop or change medicine on your own. | Authoritative guidance 15 14 13 |
| A thyroid condition or taking thyroid medicine | Ask your clinician before eating very large amounts of raw bok choy or other raw brassica vegetables. Normal food amounts were not found to harm thyroid function in a 2024 review. | Case report 3 4 |
| History of calcium oxalate kidney stones | Bok choy's oxalate content was not found. Ask a clinician about your stone type and diet. | Authoritative guidance 16 |
| Known allergy to bok choy or similar vegetables | Avoid it and ask an allergist. Call emergency services for trouble breathing or swelling of the face or throat. | Unknown |
| Pregnancy, young children, older age or weakened immunity (foodborne illness) | The FDA says these groups can be especially vulnerable to foodborne illness. Follow official food-safety advice for raw produce. | Authoritative guidance 10 |
Overdose, product quality and regulators
Summary. No toxicity from bok choy as ordinary food was found in the sources read. The cautions are specific to people with certain medicines or conditions, plus the one thyroid case report.
Animal. Not reviewed for bok choy. The 2024 thyroid review includes animal studies of brassica plants.
Human doses studied. A trial gave children meals with bok choy and other vegetables for 9 weeks, and two small trials tested single rice meals with bok choy or pak choi. The abstracts report no harm.
High dose or long term signals. The thyroid case report involved raw bok choy; amounts were not read.
Overdose response. Not found.
Genotoxicity. Not researched.
Fresh leafy produce eaten raw can carry germs. Pesticide residues, heavy metals and nitrate levels in bok choy were not researched.
Food safety handling. The FDA says to choose produce that is not bruised or damaged, keep perishable produce at 40 F (4 C) or below, refrigerate pre-cut or packaged produce, wash produce under running water without soap, cut away damaged areas, and keep it separate from raw meat, poultry and seafood. 10
| Body | Action | Date |
|---|---|---|
| NHS (UK) (United Kingdom) | Warfarin page: foods high in vitamin K such as spinach and other green leafy vegetables can affect how warfarin works; you can still eat them but ask your warfarin clinic; do not take vitamin K supplements. Bok choy is not named. source | 2026-02-24 |
| MedlinePlus (US National Library of Medicine) (United States) | Warfarin drug information: eat consistent amounts of vitamin K foods week to week and talk to your doctor before changing your diet source | 2026-03-15 |
| MedlinePlus (US National Library of Medicine) (United States) | Vitamin K page: sudden changes in vitamin K consumption can change warfarin's effect source | 2025-01-21 |
| NIDDK (US National Institutes of Health) (United States) | Kidney stone diet page lists nuts, peanuts, rhubarb, spinach and wheat bran as foods to consider avoiding after calcium oxalate stones; bok choy is not named source | 2017-05-01 |
| FDA (US) (United States) | Selecting and Serving Produce Safely: washing, refrigeration at 40 F, separating produce from raw meat, groups especially vulnerable to foodborne illness source | 2024-03-05 |
When to get medical help
- Trouble breathing, swelling of the lips, face or throat, or widespread hives after eating bok choy
- Signs of serious bleeding while taking warfarin, such as blood in urine or stool, unexplained bruising or nosebleeds
- Extreme tiredness, feeling very cold, confusion or very slow thinking in someone with thyroid disease (signs of a severe underactive thyroid; get urgent medical help)
- Vomiting, diarrhoea, stomach pain or fever after eating raw produce (symptoms of foodborne illness)
Stop using the product and contact a clinician or emergency service. In the US, Poison Control is 1-800-222-1222.
General information only, not medical advice. Ask a clinician or pharmacist before use, especially with medicines, in pregnancy or with a health condition. See the Natural Remedy Safety guide.
Frequently asked questions
What is bok choy good for?
Is bok choy safe with warfarin?
Is raw bok choy bad for the thyroid?
Is bok choy a good source of calcium?
Does bok choy prevent cancer?
Is bok choy good for the heart?
Observational studies link more vegetables, including cruciferous and green leafy ones, to lower heart disease (RR 0.92 per 200 g/day of fruit and vegetables). This cannot show that bok choy itself protects the heart.
Does bok choy help blood sugar?
What vitamins are in bok choy?
USDA lists per 100 g raw: 45.5 micrograms vitamin K, 45 mg vitamin C, 223 micrograms vitamin A (RAE), 66 micrograms folate (DFE) and 0.194 mg vitamin B6.
Is cooked or raw bok choy better?
We found no source comparing them for health outcomes. The Linus Pauling Institute says cooking inactivates myrosinase, the enzyme that makes isothiocyanates, though light steaming under 5 minutes keeps some.
Is bok choy safe in pregnancy?
No source read gives a special caution about eating bok choy. The FDA says pregnant women can be especially vulnerable to foodborne illness, so wash produce and keep it cold. Ask your doctor.
Can I be allergic to bok choy?
Any food can cause an allergic reaction, but our searches found no published allergy reports for bok choy. For trouble breathing or swelling of the face or throat, call emergency services.
How should I wash bok choy?
The FDA says to cut away damaged areas, wash produce under running water without soap or produce wash, keep it cold, and keep it away from raw meat, poultry and seafood.
Explore by health goal
Editorial transparency
- Written by
- AlternativeMed editorial team. Research compiled with AI assistance, then checked against the sources listed.
- Medical review
- None. This page has not been reviewed by a physician or pharmacist.
- First published
- 2026-10-26
- Last substantive update
- 2026-10-26
- How we research
- We started from our existing bok choy summary, re-checked nutrition at USDA FoodData Central, read the health agency pages (NHS, MedlinePlus, NIDDK, FDA, WHO) and the Linus Pauling Institute, and searched PubMed for bok choy and pak choi. Only abstracts were read for studies; the thyroid case report has no abstract, so only its title was read. Items we could not verify are flagged in the research gaps.
- How we rate evidence
- See "How we rate evidence" in the Evidence tab.
- Independence
- No product is promoted on this page. No affiliate links are shown.
Sources 17
Each source was opened and checked. Where we read only the abstract, it says so. The small numbers in the text point here.
- Aune D, Giovannucci E, Boffetta P, et al.. Fruit and vegetable intake and the risk of cardiovascular disease, total cancer and all-cause mortality-a systematic review and dose-response meta-analysis of prospective studies.. Int J Epidemiol. 2017. PMID 28338764. DOI 10.1093/ije/dyw319. (abstract)
- Chang CH, Wang YW, Yeh Liu PY, Kao Yang YH.. A practical approach to minimize the interaction of dietary vitamin K with warfarin.. J Clin Pharm Ther. 2014. PMID 24383939. DOI 10.1111/jcpt.12104. (abstract)
- Chu M, Seltzer TF.. Myxedema coma induced by ingestion of raw bok choy.. N Engl J Med. 2010. PMID 20484407. DOI 10.1056/NEJMc0911005. (title-only)
- Galanty A, Grudzinska M, Pazdziora W, et al.. Do Brassica Vegetables Affect Thyroid Function?-A Comprehensive Systematic Review.. Int J Mol Sci. 2024. PMID 38612798. DOI 10.3390/ijms25073988. (abstract)
- Hoffmann H, Baldermann S, Wiesner-Reinhold M, et al.. Metabolism and Recovery of Epithionitriles from Glucosinolates-A Human Intervention Study.. Mol Nutr Food Res. 2023. PMID 36373491. DOI 10.1002/mnfr.202200619. (abstract)
- Ribaya-Mercado JD, Maramag CC, Tengco LW, et al.. Carotene-rich plant foods ingested with minimal dietary fat enhance the total-body vitamin A pool size in Filipino schoolchildren as assessed by stable-isotope-dilution methodology.. Am J Clin Nutr. 2007. PMID 17413103. DOI 10.1093/ajcn/85.4.1041. (abstract)
- Sayegh M, Henderson J, et al.. Inter-Individual Variation in Postprandial Glycemic Responses in Women Co-Ingesting Green Leafy Vegetables with a Carbohydrate Meal: Interactions with the Sirtuin System.. Mol Nutr Food Res. 2021. PMID 33852192. DOI 10.1002/mnfr.202000923. (abstract)
- Shkembi B, Huppertz T.. Calcium Absorption from Food Products: Food Matrix Effects.. Nutrients. 2021. PMID 35011055. DOI 10.3390/nu14010180. (abstract)
- Zhu R, Liu M, Han Y, et al.. Acute effects of non-homogenised and homogenised vegetables added to rice-based meals on postprandial glycaemic responses and in vitro carbohydrate digestion.. Br J Nutr. 2018. PMID 30355395. DOI 10.1017/S0007114518002489. (abstract)
- . FDA: Selecting and Serving Produce Safely. . . (full-text)
- . GBIF Backbone: Brassica rapa subsp. chinensis (L.) Hanelt (usageKey 3042702). . . (full-text)
- . Linus Pauling Institute, Oregon State University: Isothiocyanates. . . (full-text)
- . MedlinePlus: Vitamin K. . . (full-text)
- . MedlinePlus Drug Information: Warfarin. . . (full-text)
- . NHS: Warfarin. . . (full-text)
- . NIDDK: Eating, diet and nutrition for kidney stones. . . (full-text)
- . USDA FoodData Central: Cabbage, chinese (pak-choi), raw (FDC 170390). . . (full-text)
