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Coffee

Coffee as a functional food: two umbrella reviews, why most evidence is observational, and cautions in pregnancy and for fracture risk.

Content last updated . This page has not been medically reviewed.

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Overview

Coffee is one of the most studied beverages. The strongest summaries are reviews of meta-analyses.

What the research shows

A BMJ umbrella review of meta-analyses of multiple health outcomes concluded that coffee consumption seems generally safe within usual levels of intake, with the largest risk reduction for various health outcomes at three to four cups a day, and more likely to benefit health than harm; it noted that robust randomized trials are needed to show cause, that outside pregnancy coffee could be tested as an intervention without significant risk, and that women at increased risk of fracture should possibly be excluded. [1] Another umbrella review covered coffee, caffeine and health outcomes. [2]

Most of this evidence is observational: coffee drinkers differ from non-drinkers in other ways. Proper evidence that adding coffee improves health in people who do not drink it was not found.

Safety and individual considerations

  • Pregnancy: the BMJ review separates pregnancy as the exception. Ask your clinician about caffeine limits. [1]
  • Fracture risk: the review suggests women at increased risk of fracture be cautious. [1]
  • Sweeteners, syrups and creamers add sugar and fat. [3]
  • Caffeine affects sleep and heart rate for some people.

Related

Black tea · Cocoa

Frequently asked questions

How much coffee is healthy?

The BMJ review found the largest risk reduction at three to four cups a day, as an association. [1]

References

  1. Poole R et al. Coffee consumption and health: umbrella review of meta-analyses of multiple health outcomes. BMJ 2017. PMID 29167102.
  2. Grosso G et al. Coffee, Caffeine, and Health Outcomes: An Umbrella Review. Annu Rev Nutr 2017. PMID 28826374.
  3. U.S. Department of Agriculture and U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. Dietary Guidelines for Americans, 2020–2025. Check the site for the current edition.
Education, not medical advice. This page is for general information. It does not diagnose or treat any condition and is not a substitute for care from a qualified health professional. Natural does not automatically mean safe. Ask a clinician or pharmacist before changing your care, especially if you take medication, are pregnant or breastfeeding, or have a health condition.