Beverages · Drink
Cow's Milk
Bos taurus (dairy cattle milk) · also called Milk, dairy milk, whole milk
Cow's milk is a drink and food from dairy cows. A cup of whole milk has about 276 mg of calcium, 7.7 g of protein and 1.1 mcg of vitamin B12 (USDA). Large studies that follow people over time found no clear link between milk and heart disease or early death, but they cannot prove cause. The main cautions are milk allergy, lactose intolerance, raw milk germs and not giving it as a drink to babies under 12 months.
General information, not medical advice. Last substantive update · Not medically reviewed. A named clinician has not signed off on this page. How this page is made
About Cow's Milk
Cow's milk is a drink from dairy cows. It is a source of calcium, protein and vitamin B12. It is a food, not a proven remedy: the health findings are mostly observational, and the clearest facts are the nutrient content and the safety cautions.
What it is
Cow's milk is the white liquid from dairy cows. USDA lists whole milk (3.25% milkfat) with added vitamin D. The NHS says milk and dairy are great sources of protein and calcium and that lower-fat options such as 1% or skimmed milk are a good idea for older children and adults who want less saturated fat.
USDA data for whole milk with added vitamin D, per 100 g: 61 kcal, 3.15 g protein, 3.25 g fat (1.87 g saturated), 4.8 g carbohydrate, 5.05 g total sugars, 113 mg calcium, 84 mg phosphorus, 132 mg potassium, 43 mg sodium, 0.81 mcg vitamin D, 0.45 mcg vitamin B12 and 0.17 mg riboflavin. A cup (244 g) has about 149 kcal, 7.7 g protein, 7.9 g fat (4.6 g saturated), 11.7 g carbohydrate, 12.3 g sugars, 276 mg calcium, 322 mg potassium, 105 mg sodium, 1.98 mcg vitamin D and 1.1 mcg vitamin B12. Fat level, fortification and brand change these numbers.
What the research shows
The best-known findings are from cohort studies, which follow people over time and cannot prove cause. In 29 cohorts of 938,465 people, milk showed no link with death, coronary heart disease or cardiovascular disease. Several of the authors have received funding from dairy bodies.
A 2012 analysis of five cohorts linked more dairy foods, especially low-fat and fluid dairy (milk or yogurt), with a lower chance of developing high blood pressure. Milk and yogurt are lumped together there.
For bones, an Icelandic cohort linked the highest milk intake with fewer hip fractures (HR 0.69), while a Danish genetic study of 97,811 people found no link. The two designs disagree.
Whole milk has about 4.6 g of saturated fat per cup. The American Heart Association says replacing saturated fat with unsaturated fat lowers LDL cholesterol, but that advice is about fats in general. No trial of milk fat was read. Official advice on fat level in milk differs, so the NHS suggests 1% or skimmed milk for older children and adults, and says skimmed or 1% milk should not be the main drink for under-5s.
At a glance
Traditional uses history, not proof
- Drunk and used in cooking in many cultures
- Long use as food is not proof that it treats any condition
Studied for research
- Calcium, protein and vitamin B12, high certainty for the nutrient content
- Heart disease and early death, low certainty (observational, no link found)
- High blood pressure, low certainty (observational)
- Hip fracture, mixed (two designs disagree)
- Saturated fat and LDL cholesterol, insufficient evidence for milk itself
- Obesity, diabetes, Alzheimer's, cancers and Parkinson's, very low certainty (one review)
Main compounds
- Protein (the part that causes milk allergy)
- Lactose (milk sugar)
- Calcium
- Saturated fat
- Vitamin B12 and riboflavin
Common forms
- Whole milk with added vitamin D (USDA values read)
- Pasteurised milk, the form sold in shops
- Raw (unpasteurized) milk is discussed for safety only
- Reduced-fat, fat-free, lactose-free and flavoured milk (nutrient values not read)
- Milk-protein powders, cheese and yogurt are different products and are not covered
Research links: 2017 review: milk and dairy, heart disease and death (29 cohorts) · 2012 review: dairy and high blood pressure · 2024 guideline: cow's milk allergy · Research Library · Genes & Biomarkers Library
What it is and its history
- Accepted scientific name
- Bos taurus (cattle milk)
- Naming authority
- Linnaeus
- Common names
- Cow's milk (English); Milk (English); Dairy milk (English); Whole milk (English)
- Family or group
- Bovidae (cattle). Milk is an animal food, not a plant.
- Classification
- Animalia > Chordata > Mammalia > Artiodactyla > Bovidae > Bos > Bos taurus
- Cultivation
- Not verified from a source read.
- Harvest and processing
- CDC and the NHS describe pasteurisation as a heat step that kills harmful germs, and milk in shops is pasteurised (NHS). Fat levels, lactose-free versions and fortification were not described in sources read.
- Look-alikes and adulterants
- Name: Plant milks, goat's milk, sheep's milk, yogurt and cheese; Note: Other foods and drinks with their own composition. WAO advises against other mammals' milk as a substitute in cow's milk allergy.
Photographs
What is inside, and how it may work
What it contains and how those compounds act in cells and animals. Laboratory and animal mechanisms are not proven effects in people.
Main compounds
| Compound | Family | Where it is concentrated | Activity studied | Level of evidence |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Protein | protein | Milk USDA, per 100 g: 3.15 g (about 7.7 g per cup) | A source of protein. Milk protein is the cause of milk allergy. 15 10 | Human data |
| Lactose | sugar | Milk USDA total sugars per 100 g: 5.05 g. USDA does not name the sugar; MedlinePlus says lactose is the sugar in milk. | Cannot be digested by people with lactose intolerance. 15 11 | Human data |
| Calcium | mineral | Milk USDA, per 100 g: 113 mg (about 276 mg per cup) | A bone mineral. Uptake from milk was not studied in the sources read. 15 | Lab |
| Saturated fat | fat | Milk USDA whole milk, per 100 g: 1.865 g (about 4.6 g per cup) | Replacing saturated fat with unsaturated fat lowers LDL cholesterol (AHA). Not tested with milk itself. 15 5 | Human data |
Absorption, metabolism and elimination
- Absorption
- Not found for milk nutrients in the sources read.
- Distribution
- Not found.
- Metabolism
- Lactase, an enzyme in the gut, splits lactose; people who make too little get lactose intolerance (NHS).
- Elimination
- Not found.
- Bioavailability
- Not established in the sources read.
Isolated compounds versus whole extracts
The studies read are about milk or dairy foods as eaten. Cheese, yogurt and other fermented dairy are different products and are grouped differently across studies. Milk-protein powders and supplements are different products and are not covered.
Nutritional composition
Nutrition from USDA FoodData Central (SR Legacy, April 2018 release; values read 2026-10-26 from a saved copy of the data feed, because the public site could not be fetched). Whole milk, 3.25% milkfat, with added vitamin D (FDC 171265), per 100 g: 61 kcal, 3.15 g protein, 3.25 g fat (1.865 g saturated), 4.8 g carbohydrate, 5.05 g total sugars, 0 g fibre, 113 mg calcium, 84 mg phosphorus, 132 mg potassium, 43 mg sodium, 10 mg magnesium, 0.37 mg zinc, 3.7 mcg selenium, 0.812 mcg vitamin D, 0.45 mcg vitamin B12, 0.169 mg riboflavin, 46 mcg vitamin A (RAE), 10 mg cholesterol. USDA household portion: 1 cup = 244 g (the 100 g values multiplied by 2.44): about 149 kcal, 7.7 g protein, 7.9 g fat (4.6 g saturated), 11.7 g carbohydrate, 12.3 g sugars, 276 mg calcium, 205 mg phosphorus, 322 mg potassium, 105 mg sodium, 1.98 mcg vitamin D, 1.1 mcg vitamin B12, 0.41 mg riboflavin and 112 mcg vitamin A. A second USDA record (FDC 172217, without added vitamins A and D) lists the same energy, protein and calcium. Reduced-fat, fat-free, lactose-free and flavoured milk were not read.
1 high certainty1 mixed findings2 low certainty1 very low certainty1 not enough evidence
What was looked at
The 6 benefits and uses checked for Cow's Milk, each with how strong the evidence is. Tap one to open it.
- Source of calcium, protein and vitamin B12 (nutrient content)High certainty
- Heart disease and early death (observational)Low certainty
- High blood pressure (observational)Low certainty
- Bone density and hip fracture (mixed)Mixed findings
- Saturated fat and LDL cholesterolNot enough evidence
- Obesity, type 2 diabetes, Alzheimer's, cancer and Parkinson's (contested)Very low certainty
Lab markers tracked in the studies
New high blood pressureHip fractureLDL cholesterol
What is Cow's Milk good for?
The main studied uses and how strong the human evidence is for each. Most results come from observational studies of milk or dairy foods, so they show links, not cause.
Benefits, one by one
Each card is a research question, not a promise. Tap a goal to filter. Open a card to see the studies, doses and limits.
Source of calcium, protein and vitamin B12 (nutrient content)
High certaintyWhole milk with added vitamin D has 113 mg of calcium, 3.15 g of protein and 0.45 mcg of vitamin B12 per 100 g, by USDA data. One cup (244 g) has about 276 mg of calcium, 7.7 g of protein and 1.1 mcg of B12. The NHS calls milk and dairy great sources of protein and calcium.
3 studiesWhole milk with added vitamin D (USDA). Reduced-fat, fat-free, lactos…
Studies, doses and limits
What the trials found
No trial was read showing that drinking milk corrects a low intake of any nutrient. The NHS says non-dairy options with added calcium can help people who avoid dairy, and MedlinePlus says milk and milk foods are the most common calcium source for most people.
Results
Milk is a dependable source of calcium, protein and B12 on paper. How much your body takes up was not studied in the sources read.
Effect sizes as reported
USDA, whole milk with added vitamin D, per 100 g: protein 3.15 g, calcium 113 mg, vitamin B12 0.45 mcg. Per cup (244 g): about 7.7 g, 276 mg and 1.1 mcg.
Why this rating
High that the food contains these nutrients (USDA data). Not a test of any health outcome.
Form and dose studied
Whole milk with added vitamin D (USDA). Reduced-fat, fat-free, lactose-free and flavoured milk were not read.
Who was studied
General diet; children 1 to 3 years (NHS).
Limits
Nutrient facts, not trials. Values differ by fat level, brand and fortification.
Why researchers looked
People drink milk for protein and, above all, calcium.
Traditional use
Milk has been a common food and drink in many places for a long time. Long use as food is not proof that it treats any condition.
Proposed mechanism Nutrient database
These are nutrient amounts in the food, taken from the USDA table. They are not a trial.
A proposed mechanism does not show that the effect happens in people.
Milk is a major food allergen and lactose causes symptoms in some people; see the Safety tab.
Heart disease and early death (observational)
Low certaintyA pooled analysis of 29 cohort studies (938,465 people) found no link between drinking milk and death, coronary heart disease or cardiovascular disease. Fermented dairy such as yogurt and cheese showed small links that faded in a sensitivity check.
1 studiesMilk and dairy foods as eaten.
Studies, doses and limits
What the trials found
Cohort studies only. No trial of milk on heart disease or death was read.
Results
No clear link, good or bad, for milk. Not a proof of safety or benefit.
Effect sizes as reported
Milk: no association with all-cause death, coronary heart disease or cardiovascular disease.
Why this rating
Low because it is observational. The result for milk is a no-link finding. The authors have dairy-industry funding ties.
Form and dose studied
Milk and dairy foods as eaten.
Who was studied
Adults in cohorts in Europe, the US and elsewhere.
Limits
Observational; people who drink more milk differ in other ways. Dairy groups are defined differently between studies.
Why researchers looked
Milk is common, so large groups of people who drink more or less can be compared.
Traditional use
Milk has been a common food and drink in many places for a long time. Long use as food is not proof that it treats any condition.
Proposed mechanism Not applicable
Not studied in this analysis; it counts how often outcomes happened.
A proposed mechanism does not show that the effect happens in people.
See the Safety tab for allergy, lactose and raw milk.
High blood pressure (observational)
Low certaintyA pooled analysis of five cohort studies (nearly 45,000 people) found less new high blood pressure in people who ate more dairy, especially low-fat dairy and fluid dairy (milk or yogurt). It is an association from a 2012 review.
1 studiesDairy foods as eaten; fluid dairy is milk or yogurt.
Studies, doses and limits
What the trials found
Five cohort studies; no trial of milk on blood pressure was read.
Results
A moderate link in cohorts, mixing milk with yogurt. Milk alone is not separated.
Effect sizes as reported
All dairy RR 0.87 (0.81 to 0.94); low-fat dairy RR 0.84 (0.74 to 0.95); fluid dairy RR 0.92 (0.87 to 0.98); cheese: no link.
Why this rating
Low: five observational studies, and the fluid dairy group includes yogurt.
Form and dose studied
Dairy foods as eaten; fluid dairy is milk or yogurt.
Who was studied
Adults without high blood pressure at the start.
Limits
Few studies, observational, 2012. Cannot show that milk lowers blood pressure.
Why researchers looked
Dairy minerals such as calcium and potassium are sometimes proposed as a reason; the review does not test this.
Traditional use
Milk has been a common food and drink in many places for a long time. Long use as food is not proof that it treats any condition.
Proposed mechanism Not applicable
Not tested in the review.
A proposed mechanism does not show that the effect happens in people.
None specific.
Bone density and hip fracture (mixed)
Mixed findingsIn 4,614 older Icelanders, those who drank milk at least twice a day had a lower risk of hip fracture than those who drank it under half a day (HR 0.69). A genetic-design study of 97,811 Danes found no link between higher milk intake and hip fracture, though bone density at one site was slightly higher.
2 studiesMilk as a drink.
Studies, doses and limits
What the trials found
Observational cohort and genetic-association studies only; no trial of milk on fractures was read.
Results
The two designs disagree. Neither shows that drinking more milk prevents fractures.
Effect sizes as reported
Icelandic cohort: hip fracture HR 0.69 (0.47 to 0.99) for the highest vs lowest milk group. Danish genetic study: HR 1.00 per extra glass a week (0.99 to 1.01); femoral neck bone density +0.10 g/cm2 for TT vs CC (0.02 to 0.18).
Why this rating
Mixed: one cohort found a link, a genetic design with a much larger group found none for fracture.
Form and dose studied
Milk as a drink.
Who was studied
Older adults (Iceland); adults of Northern European descent (Denmark).
Limits
Observational and genetic designs, each with limits. Northern European populations only.
Why researchers looked
Milk is a main calcium food, so it is often studied for bone health.
Traditional use
Milk has been a common food and drink in many places for a long time. Long use as food is not proof that it treats any condition.
Proposed mechanism Not applicable
Calcium is part of bone, but neither study tested how milk acts on bone.
A proposed mechanism does not show that the effect happens in people.
See the Safety tab for lactose and allergy.
Saturated fat and LDL cholesterol
Not enough evidenceWhole milk has 1.87 g of saturated fat per 100 g, about 4.6 g per cup (USDA). The American Heart Association says replacing saturated fat with unsaturated fat lowers LDL cholesterol and heart disease. That is about the fat swap. No trial of milk fat itself was read.
3 studiesWhole milk (USDA).
Studies, doses and limits
What the trials found
The advisory draws on trials of fat swaps, mostly with vegetable oils. No trial of drinking milk was read, and the large cohort analysis of milk found no link to heart disease.
Results
The fat-swap finding is strong; whether it applies to the amount of milk fat in a drink was not shown in the sources read.
Effect sizes as reported
Fat-swap trials: about 30% less cardiovascular disease. Whole milk per 100 g: 3.25 g fat, 1.865 g saturated (USDA).
Why this rating
The fat-swap evidence is strong for fats in general. For milk on its own there is insufficient evidence in what we read. The NHS suggests 1% or skimmed milk for older children and adults.
Form and dose studied
Whole milk (USDA).
Who was studied
Adults.
Limits
Not a milk trial. Lower-fat milks were not compared in the sources read.
Why researchers looked
Milk fat is mostly saturated fat, so milk is looked at in advice about heart health.
Traditional use
Milk has been a common food and drink in many places for a long time. Long use as food is not proof that it treats any condition.
Proposed mechanism Authoritative guidance
The advisory says swapping saturated for unsaturated fat lowers LDL cholesterol, a cause of atherosclerosis.
A proposed mechanism does not show that the effect happens in people.
Under-5s should not drink skimmed or 1% milk as a main drink (NHS).
Obesity, type 2 diabetes, Alzheimer's, cancer and Parkinson's (contested)
Very low certaintyA 2022 review says milk has been linked with favourable effects for obesity, type 2 diabetes and Alzheimer's, and with negative effects for prostate cancer risk and Parkinson's disease, with no consensus for other diseases. The abstract gives no numbers.
1 studiesMilk as a food.
Studies, doses and limits
What the trials found
A narrative review of mostly observational research; the abstract does not say which studies were counted.
Results
The review calls milk's effect on health a controversial issue. We could not check the individual studies.
Effect sizes as reported
No numbers given in the abstract.
Why this rating
Very low: a narrative review, no numbers, individual studies not read.
Form and dose studied
Milk as a food.
Who was studied
General population.
Limits
Abstract only; study methods and sizes not shown. Mostly observational research.
Why researchers looked
These questions come up in the wider debate about milk and chronic disease.
Traditional use
Milk has been a common food and drink in many places for a long time. Long use as food is not proof that it treats any condition.
Proposed mechanism Not applicable
Not described in the abstract.
A proposed mechanism does not show that the effect happens in people.
None specific.
Connections to the rest of health
How Cow's Milk connects to the rest of our health knowledge graph. Every link says what kind of connection it is. A safety link (for example to the liver) is a warning, not a benefit. A study that merely mentions a topic never creates a benefit link.
Explore every connection: goals, body systems, organs, symptoms, genes
A. Wellness goals
| Connected to | Kind of connection | Evidence status | Context | Studies |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Preventive Wellness | High certainty | Source of calcium, protein and vitamin B12 (nutrient content): Whole milk with added vitamin D has 113 mg of calcium, 3.15 g of protein and 0.45 mcg of vitamin B12 per 100 g, by USDA data. One cup (244 g) has about 276 mg of calcium, 7.7 g of protein and 1.1 mcg of B12. The NHS calls milk and dairy great sources of protein and calcium. | 15 12 11 | |
| Bones Joints Muscles | High certainty | Source of calcium, protein and vitamin B12 (nutrient content): Whole milk with added vitamin D has 113 mg of calcium, 3.15 g of protein and 0.45 mcg of vitamin B12 per 100 g, by USDA data. One cup (244 g) has about 276 mg of calcium, 7.7 g of protein and 1.1 mcg of B12. The NHS calls milk and dairy great sources of protein and calcium. | 15 12 11 | |
| Heart Health | Low certainty | Heart disease and early death (observational): A pooled analysis of 29 cohort studies (938,465 people) found no link between drinking milk and death, coronary heart disease or cardiovascular disease. Fermented dairy such as yogurt and cheese showed small links that faded in a sensitivity check. | 3 | |
| Blood Pressure Support | Low certainty | High blood pressure (observational): A pooled analysis of five cohort studies (nearly 45,000 people) found less new high blood pressure in people who ate more dairy, especially low-fat dairy and fluid dairy (milk or yogurt). It is an association from a 2012 review. | 4 | |
| Bones Joints Muscles | Mixed findings | Bone density and hip fracture (mixed): In 4,614 older Icelanders, those who drank milk at least twice a day had a lower risk of hip fracture than those who drank it under half a day (HR 0.69). A genetic-design study of 97,811 Danes found no link between higher milk intake and hip fracture, though bone density at one site was slightly higher. | 6 2 | |
| Cholesterol Balance | Not enough evidence | Saturated fat and LDL cholesterol: Whole milk has 1.87 g of saturated fat per 100 g, about 4.6 g per cup (USDA). The American Heart Association says replacing saturated fat with unsaturated fat lowers LDL cholesterol and heart disease. That is about the fat swap. No trial of milk fat itself was read. | 5 15 12 | |
| Metabolic Health | Very low certainty | Obesity, type 2 diabetes, Alzheimer's, cancer and Parkinson's (contested): A 2022 review says milk has been linked with favourable effects for obesity, type 2 diabetes and Alzheimer's, and with negative effects for prostate cancer risk and Parkinson's disease, with no consensus for other diseases. The abstract gives no numbers. | 1 |
B. Body systems
| Connected to | Kind of connection | Evidence status | Context | Studies |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Musculoskeletal System | Biological association | High certainty | Studied for: Source of calcium, protein and vitamin B12 (nutrient content) Studied for: Bone density and hip fracture (mixed) | 15 12 11 6 2 |
| Cardiovascular System | Biological association | Low certainty | Studied for: Heart disease and early death (observational) Studied for: High blood pressure (observational) | 3 4 5 15 12 |
| Endocrine System | Biological association | Very low certainty | Studied for: Obesity, type 2 diabetes, Alzheimer's, cancer and Parkinson's (contested) | 1 |
E. Health conditions
| Connected to | Kind of connection | Evidence status | Context | Studies |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Milk allergy | Adverse effect or risk | Documented risk | Milk is a major food allergen and cow's milk allergy is common in early childhood. Preparation or compound: Milk protein |
10 7 |
| Lactose intolerance | Adverse effect or risk | Documented risk | Lactose can cause tummy pain, bloating and diarrhoea in people who cannot digest it. Preparation or compound: Lactose |
13 11 |
| Listeriosis | Adverse effect or risk | Documented risk | Raw milk can carry Listeria; pregnant women are higher risk. Preparation or compound: Raw milk |
9 12 |
I. Biomarkers
| Connected to | Kind of connection | Evidence status | Context | Studies |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| New high blood pressure | Biological association | Low certainty | Measured in trials: lower in people with more dairy (association). A lab change is not the same as a health benefit. | 4 |
| Hip fracture | Biological association | Mixed findings | Measured in trials: mixed. A lab change is not the same as a health benefit. | 6 2 |
| LDL cholesterol | Biological association | Not enough evidence | Measured in trials: lowered by swapping saturated for unsaturated fat (not tested with milk). A lab change is not the same as a health benefit. | 5 |
K. Biological pathways
L. Active compounds
| Connected to | Kind of connection | Evidence status | Context | Studies |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Protein | Biological association | Human | A source of protein. Milk protein is the cause of milk allergy. Preparation or compound: Milk |
15 10 |
| Lactose | Biological association | Human | Cannot be digested by people with lactose intolerance. Preparation or compound: Milk |
15 11 |
| Calcium | Biological association | Lab | A bone mineral. Uptake from milk was not studied in the sources read. Preparation or compound: Milk |
15 |
| Saturated fat | Biological association | Human | Replacing saturated fat with unsaturated fat lowers LDL cholesterol (AHA). Not tested with milk itself. Preparation or compound: Milk |
15 5 |
Each connection is stored with the ingredient, the connected record, the kind of connection, the evidence status, the supporting studies, the preparation or compound involved, and a review date (last reviewed October 26, 2026).
Evidence at a glance: what changed in 1 lab markers
Tap a number to show only those markers. Counts are markers, not people.
The evidence
The research centre for Cow's Milk. Every record here was checked against PubMed or the publisher's page; we never list a study we have not verified.
Evidence by outcome
Bars show how many studies we found for each outcome, not how well it works. People are added up across trials only (reviews are not added, to avoid double counting).
How we rate evidence
High certainty
Several well-run trials or reviews agree; further research is unlikely to change the picture much.
Moderate certainty
Good trials point the same way, but some doubt remains.
Low certainty
Small, short or inconsistent trials. The finding could change with better research.
Very low certainty
Very little or very weak human data. Treat as a possibility only.
Mixed findings
Trials or reviews disagree with each other.
Not enough evidence
Not enough human research to say either way.
Evidence against
Good research found no benefit, or found harm.
We take the reviewers' own risk-of-bias and GRADE statements where they exist, and otherwise judge from study size, design, consistency, directness and whether a product matches what is sold. Many publications do not make evidence high. Method note: We started from our existing cow's milk summary, re-checked nutrition against saved USDA FoodData Central data, read the health agency pages (NHS, FDA, MedlinePlus, NIDDK, CDC) and re-read PubMed abstracts for the studies cited. Only abstracts were read for studies. Items we could not verify are flagged in the research gaps.
Study library: every study we checked 15
| Study | Design | People | Product, dose, length | Result |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Antunes 2022 Cow's Milk in Human Nutrition and the Emergence of Plant-Based Milk Alternatives. Foods · PMID 36613315 · DOI |
Narrative review |
Review of cow's milk and plant-based milk alternatives | Cow's milk compared with plant-based milks Milk as a drink or food |
The review calls cow's milk a complete food with high-quality protein and micronutrients. It says milk has been linked with favourable effects in some diseases (obesity, type 2 diabetes, Alzheimer's) and negative effects in others (prostate cancer risk, Parkinson's), with no consensus for other diseases. No numbers in the abstract (Not applicable) Methods, limits and fundingOutcomes: Nutrition and health associations Limitations: A narrative review, not a systematic one. The abstract gives no numbers, no study counts and does not say how studies were chosen. Funding and conflicts: The authors declare no conflict of interest. Read: abstract |
| Bergholdt 2018 Lactase persistence, milk intake, hip fracture and bone mineral density: a study of 97 811 Danish individuals and a meta-analysis. J Intern Med · PMID 29537719 · DOI |
Genetic association (mendelian randomisation) with meta analysis |
97,811 Danish adults (age 20 and over) in three studies, plus five published Northern European studies | Milk intake, using a gene for lifelong lactase persistence as a stand-in for lifelong higher intake Milk as a drink or food |
Per extra glass of milk a week there was no change in hip fracture risk. Lactase persistence was not linked to fracture, but was linked to slightly higher femoral neck bone density, not lumbar spine or total hip. Hip fracture HR 1.00 per extra glass a week; HR 1.01 per T-allele (HR 1.00: 0.99 to 1.01; per T-allele 0.94 to 1.09) Methods, limits and fundingOutcomes: Hip fracture and bone mineral density Limitations: A genetic design cannot capture every route by which milk could matter. Northern European populations only. Funding and conflicts: Funding is not stated in the abstract. Read: abstract |
| Guo 2017 Milk and dairy consumption and risk of cardiovascular diseases and all-cause mortality: dose-response meta-analysis of prospective cohort studies. Eur J Epidemiol · PMID 28374228 · DOI |
Systematic review meta analysis (cohort) |
29 prospective cohort studies; 938,465 people; 93,158 deaths, 28,419 coronary heart disease and 25,416 cardiovascular disease cases | Milk and dairy foods as eaten Milk as a drink or food · vs Lower intake |
No associations were found for total dairy or for milk with death, coronary heart disease or cardiovascular disease. Fermented dairy (sour milk products, cheese, yogurt) showed small inverse associations that faded when one large Swedish study was removed. Fermented dairy per 20 g a day: RR 0.98 for death and 0.98 for cardiovascular disease; milk: no association (0.97 to 0.99 (fermented dairy, both outcomes); heterogeneity I2 94.4% and 87.5%) Methods, limits and fundingOutcomes: All-cause death, coronary heart disease, cardiovascular disease Limitations: Observational, so it cannot show cause. Large differences between studies for fermented dairy. Milk and other dairy are grouped differently across the included studies. Funding and conflicts: The conflict-of-interest statement lists funding and honoraria to several authors from dairy bodies (for example the Global Dairy Platform, Dairy Research Institute and Dairy Australia). Treat as dairy-linked authorship. Read: abstract |
| Ralston 2012 A systematic review and meta-analysis of elevated blood pressure and consumption of dairy foods. J Hum Hypertens · PMID 21307883 · DOI |
Systematic review meta analysis (cohort) |
5 cohort studies; nearly 45,000 people; about 11,500 cases of elevated blood pressure | Dairy foods as eaten (fluid dairy = milk or yogurt) Milk as a drink or food · vs Lower intake |
More dairy went with less elevated blood pressure, driven by low-fat dairy and fluid dairy (milk or yogurt). Cheese showed no link. All dairy RR 0.87; low-fat dairy RR 0.84; fluid dairy RR 0.92 (All dairy 0.81 to 0.94; low-fat 0.74 to 0.95; fluid 0.87 to 0.98) Methods, limits and fundingOutcomes: Development of elevated blood pressure in adults Limitations: Only five cohorts, and fluid dairy mixes milk with yogurt, so milk on its own is not separated. Observational. A 2012 review. Funding and conflicts: Funding is not stated in the abstract. Read: abstract |
| Sacks 2017 Dietary Fats and Cardiovascular Disease: A Presidential Advisory From the American Heart Association. Circulation · PMID 28620111 · DOI |
Guideline advisory (review) |
Review of trials and cohort studies of dietary saturated fat | Replacing saturated fat with unsaturated fat (not milk specifically) Milk as a drink or food |
Trials that cut saturated fat and replaced it with polyunsaturated vegetable oil reduced cardiovascular disease by about 30%. Replacing saturated fat with unsaturated fat lowers LDL cholesterol. Replacing it with refined carbohydrate and sugar did not lower disease. About 30% less cardiovascular disease in the fat-swap trials (Not given in the abstract) Methods, limits and fundingOutcomes: Cardiovascular disease and LDL cholesterol Limitations: An advisory on dietary fat in general. It does not test milk. The abstract does not say whether the fat in dairy behaves the same way. Funding and conflicts: The abstract states AHA conflict-of-interest rules for the writing group. Read: abstract |
| Skuladottir 2023 Milk intake and hip fracture incidence in community-dwelling old Icelandic adults. Osteoporos Int · PMID 37558894 · DOI |
Prospective cohort |
4,614 Icelandic adults, mean age 76; follow-up to 2012; 7.4% had a hip fracture | Milk as drunk, from intake questions Milk as a drink or food · vs Lower intake |
The highest milk group (at least twice a day) had a lower risk of hip fracture than the lowest (under 0.5 times a day), with a linear trend. Milk intake also went with higher bone density at the start. Hip fracture HR 0.69 (highest vs lowest milk group); bone density +8.95 mg/cm3 (95% CI 0.47 to 0.99) Methods, limits and fundingOutcomes: Hip fracture and bone density Limitations: One older Icelandic group. Observational, so people who drink more milk may differ in other ways. Intake came from questions. Funding and conflicts: Funding is not stated in the abstract. Read: abstract |
| Venter 2024 World Allergy Organization (WAO) Diagnosis and Rationale for Action against Cow's Milk Allergy (DRACMA) guidelines update - XVI - Nutritional management of cow's milk allergy. World Allergy Organ J · PMID 39228431 · DOI |
Guideline |
Guideline panel on managing cow's milk allergy | Avoidance of cow's milk and substitutes Milk as a drink or food |
Cow's milk allergy is one of the most common food allergies in early childhood. Management is avoidance of cow's milk and other mammalian milk. Other mammals' milks are not recommended because of high cross-reactivity and nutrition concerns. People with this allergy need to know how to identify and treat severe reactions. No numbers in the abstract (Not applicable) Methods, limits and fundingOutcomes: Nutritional management of cow's milk allergy Limitations: A guideline, not a trial. The abstract does not give how many people are affected. Funding and conflicts: The conflict-of-interest statement lists grants and fees from infant-formula and food companies to several panel members. Read: abstract |
| s-cdc-infant-milk CDC: Cow's milk and milk alternatives (infant and toddler nutrition) · Source |
Health agency n/a |
Methods, limits and fundingRead: full-text | ||
| s-cdc-raw-milk CDC: Raw milk · Source |
Health agency n/a |
Methods, limits and fundingRead: full-text | ||
| s-fda-allergens US FDA: Food Allergies · Source |
Health agency n/a |
Methods, limits and fundingRead: full-text | ||
| s-medlineplus-lactose MedlinePlus: Lactose Intolerance · Source |
Health agency n/a |
Methods, limits and fundingRead: full-text | ||
| s-nhs-dairy NHS: Dairy and alternatives in your diet · Source |
Health agency n/a |
Methods, limits and fundingRead: full-text | ||
| s-nhs-lactose NHS: Lactose intolerance · Source |
Health agency n/a |
Methods, limits and fundingRead: full-text | ||
| s-niddk-ckd NIDDK: Eating and nutrition for chronic kidney disease · Source |
Health agency n/a |
Methods, limits and fundingRead: full-text | ||
| s-usda-fdc-171265 USDA FoodData Central: Milk, whole, 3.25% milkfat, with added vitamin D (SR Legacy, FDC 171265) · Source |
Reference database n/a |
Methods, limits and fundingRead: full-text |
What we do not know yet
- No randomised trial of drinking milk on heart disease, blood pressure or fractures was read; the evidence is observational.
- The 29-cohort analysis of heart disease has authors with dairy-industry funding ties.
- Whole, reduced-fat, fat-free, lactose-free and flavoured milk were not compared in any study read.
- The claims on obesity, diabetes, Alzheimer's, prostate cancer and Parkinson's come from one narrative review whose underlying studies were not read.
- Allergy prevalence, medicine interactions, A1/A2 milk, hormones, antibiotic residues, breastfeeding and kidney-specific advice were not researched.
- The 2025-2030 US Dietary Guidelines could not be read as text and are not used on this page.
How new research is added
New studies are found by a saved PubMed search and placed in a review queue before the page changes.
Lab markers
What changed in blood or saliva tests during trials. A changed number is not the same as feeling or being healthier, and we give no "normal ranges".
Metabolic 1
LDL cholesterol
Lowered by swapping saturated for unsaturated fat (not tested with milk) in trials
The 'bad' cholesterol carried in the blood. Higher levels are linked to more heart disease.
Not enough evidenceResults and what it means
Why it was measured
Saturated fat intake raises it; swapping for unsaturated fat lowers it.
Statistical vs. clinical meaning
Applies to fat in general. Not shown for drinking milk.
Safety implication
None specific.
| Study | Result | People | Product |
|---|---|---|---|
| 5 | Replacing saturated with unsaturated fat lowers LDL cholesterol; no number in the abstract | Trials and cohorts of dietary fat | Fat swaps, not milk |
Other 2
New high blood pressure
Lower in people with more dairy (association) in trials
Blood pressure that stays above the level doctors call high.
Low certaintyResults and what it means
Why it was measured
Cohort studies count how many people develop it over time.
Statistical vs. clinical meaning
A link in cohorts, not proof that milk lowers blood pressure.
Safety implication
None specific.
| Study | Result | People | Product |
|---|---|---|---|
| 4 | Fluid dairy RR 0.92 (0.87 to 0.98); low-fat dairy RR 0.84 (0.74 to 0.95); all dairy RR 0.87 (0.81 to 0.94); cheese no link | 5 cohort studies, nearly 45,000 people | Dairy foods as eaten, no set amount |
Hip fracture
Mixed results in trials
A break of the top of the thigh bone, serious in older adults.
Mixed findingsResults and what it means
Why it was measured
It is a major bone outcome counted in cohort studies.
Statistical vs. clinical meaning
The two designs disagree.
Safety implication
None specific.
Safety
What studies and official sources say about side effects, medicines and who should check first. Each point shows what kind of evidence it comes from.
Main points to know 5
- Milk is a major food allergen. The US FDA lists milk among the nine major food allergens. Cow's milk allergy is one of the most common food allergies in early childhood (World Allergy Organization). Management is avoidance of cow's milk and other mammals' milk, which are not advised as substitutes because of high cross-reactivity. Lactose-free milk is still milk protein. Ask an allergist. Authoritative guidance 10 7
- Raw (unpasteurized) milk can carry harmful germs. CDC says raw milk can carry Campylobacter, Cryptosporidium, E. coli, Listeria, Brucella and Salmonella, and can cause diarrhea, cramping and vomiting. Severe outcomes include Guillain-Barre syndrome and hemolytic uremic syndrome, which can cause paralysis, kidney failure, stroke or death. Children under 5, adults over 65, pregnant women and people with weak immune systems are at higher risk. CDC says pasteurized milk gives the same nutrition without those risks. Authoritative guidance 9
- Not as a drink for babies under 12 months. CDC says whole cow's milk can be introduced at 12 months, not before: it may cause intestinal bleeding, has too many proteins and minerals for a baby's kidneys and lacks the right nutrients. The NHS agrees that cows' milk should not be a drink before age 1. Never give raw milk to a child. Authoritative guidance 8 12
- Lactose intolerance is not an allergy. Lactose is the sugar in milk. People who cannot digest it get tummy pain, bloating, wind and diarrhoea minutes to hours after milk. It is not an allergy and is not dangerous, but see a doctor if symptoms keep happening. Eating less lactose, or lactase pills or drops, usually helps (NHS, MedlinePlus). Authoritative guidance 13 11
- Kidney disease and phosphorus. NIDDK says phosphorus is found naturally in protein-rich foods such as meat, dairy products and beans, and that a health professional may recommend limiting meat and dairy for people with chronic kidney disease. Work with a dietitian. NIDDK does not give a milk-specific rule on this page. Authoritative guidance 14
Side effects 3
| Effect | How often | Severity and recovery | Evidence |
|---|---|---|---|
| Allergic reaction to milk protein, from hives and swelling to severe anaphylaxis No prevalence figure was read. | Not established | can be severe (anaphylaxis) Not described in the sources read. | Authoritative guidance 10 7 |
| Lactose intolerance symptoms: tummy pain, bloating, wind, diarrhoea or constipation, feeling sick Can also be caused by other conditions such as coeliac disease or bowel infection (NHS). | Not established | mild to moderate Symptoms can be prevented by eating less lactose (NHS). | Authoritative guidance 13 11 |
| Food poisoning from raw milk: diarrhea, cramps, vomiting; rarely kidney failure or Guillain-Barre syndrome Applies to unpasteurized milk, not pasteurized milk. | Not established | can be severe Not described in the sources read. | Authoritative guidance 9 |
Liver
No liver injury from drinking milk was found in the sources read. A liver-safety source such as LiverTox was not searched.
How often. No frequency was found.
Monitoring. No agency monitoring advice was found.
This is a safety connection. It is not evidence that Cow's Milk supports liver health.
Medicines and supplements 1
| With | Why it matters | Importance | Evidence | What to do |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Specific medicines prescription | Not established in the sources read. | No source we could read names a direct interaction between milk as a drink and a particular medicine. The medicine-timing question for calcium-rich foods was not verified. | None found Not enough evidence | If you take any medicine that has food or calcium instructions on the label, ask your pharmacist about milk. |
Who should check first 3
| Situation | Advice | Evidence |
|---|---|---|
| Known or suspected cow's milk allergy | Avoid milk and foods that contain it, and read labels. Ask an allergist. | Authoritative guidance 10 7 |
| Babies under 12 months (as a drink) | Not as a main drink before 12 months (CDC, NHS). Ask your health visitor or paediatrician. | Authoritative guidance 8 12 |
| Raw milk in pregnancy, in children and in people with weak immune systems | CDC lists these groups as higher risk; the NHS says to drink only pasteurised or UHT milk in pregnancy. | Authoritative guidance 9 12 |
Overdose, product quality and regulators
Summary. No toxicity from pasteurized milk as an ordinary food was found in the sources read.
Animal. Not reviewed.
High dose or long term signals. Not researched. NHS notes that much of the fat in milk is saturated fat and that a diet high in saturated fat can raise blood cholesterol.
Overdose response. Not found.
Genotoxicity. Not researched.
Raw milk is the main contamination concern in the sources read. Pasteurised milk was not reviewed for residues or contaminants.
Germs in raw milk. Raw milk can carry harmful bacteria and parasites; CDC says pasteurization has greatly reduced milk-borne illness since the early 1900s. 9
| Body | Action | Date |
|---|---|---|
| US FDA (United States) | Food Allergies: milk is one of nine major food allergens. source | 2026-03-11 |
| CDC (United States) | Raw milk: can carry harmful germs; higher risk for children under 5, adults over 65, pregnant women and people with weak immune systems. source | 2025-01-31 |
| CDC (United States) | Cow's milk as a drink from 12 months, not before; do not give raw or unpasteurized milk to a child. source | 2026-04-16 |
| NHS (United Kingdom) | In pregnancy drink only pasteurised or UHT milk; cows' milk not as a drink before age 1; skimmed or 1% milk not as a main drink under age 5. source | 2023-12-11 |
When to get medical help
- Trouble breathing, wheezing, swelling of the lips, face, tongue or throat, a very fast widespread rash, or fainting after milk: call 911 or your local emergency number (999 in the UK).
- Bloody diarrhoea, high fever or signs of dehydration after drinking raw milk: get medical care.
Stop using the product and contact a clinician or emergency service. In the US, Poison Control is 1-800-222-1222.
General information only, not medical advice. Ask a clinician or pharmacist before use, especially with medicines, in pregnancy or with a health condition. See the Natural Remedy Safety guide.
Frequently asked questions
What is cow's milk?
Is milk a good source of calcium and protein?
Is whole milk or skimmed milk better?
Does milk cause heart disease?
A pooled analysis of 29 cohort studies found no link between milk and death, coronary heart disease or cardiovascular disease. That is an association and the authors have dairy-industry ties.
Does saturated fat in milk raise cholesterol?
Does milk help with blood pressure?
Cohort studies linked more dairy, especially low-fat and fluid dairy, with less new high blood pressure (fluid dairy RR 0.92). It is a link, not proof, and milk is not separated from yogurt.
Does drinking milk prevent broken bones?
What is the difference between milk allergy and lactose intolerance?
Is raw milk safe?
CDC says raw milk can carry germs such as Listeria, Salmonella and E. coli, and pasteurized milk offers the same nutrition without those risks. Children under 5, adults over 65, pregnant women and people with weak immune systems are at higher risk.
When can babies have cow's milk?
Is milk safe in pregnancy?
Can I drink milk with kidney disease?
NIDDK says dairy is a natural source of phosphorus and that a health professional may recommend limiting it for chronic kidney disease. Work with a dietitian.
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Editorial transparency
- Written by
- AlternativeMed editorial team. Research compiled with AI assistance, then checked against the sources listed.
- Medical review
- None. This page has not been reviewed by a physician or pharmacist.
- First published
- 2026-10-26
- Last substantive update
- 2026-10-26
- How we research
- We started from our existing cow's milk summary, re-checked nutrition against saved USDA FoodData Central data, read the health agency pages (NHS, FDA, MedlinePlus, NIDDK, CDC) and re-read PubMed abstracts for the studies cited. Only abstracts were read for studies. Items we could not verify are flagged in the research gaps.
- How we rate evidence
- See "How we rate evidence" in the Evidence tab.
- Independence
- No product is promoted on this page. No affiliate links are shown. The heart disease analysis cited discloses dairy-industry funding for several authors; this is stated where it is used.
Sources 15
Each source was opened and checked. Where we read only the abstract, it says so. The small numbers in the text point here.
- Antunes IC, Bexiga R, Pinto C, Roseiro LC, et al.. Cow's Milk in Human Nutrition and the Emergence of Plant-Based Milk Alternatives.. Foods. 2022. PMID 36613315. DOI 10.3390/foods12010099. (abstract)
- Bergholdt HKM, Larsen MK, Varbo A, Nordestgaard BG, et al.. Lactase persistence, milk intake, hip fracture and bone mineral density: a study of 97 811 Danish individuals and a meta-analysis.. J Intern Med. 2018. PMID 29537719. DOI 10.1111/joim.12753. (abstract)
- Guo J, Astrup A, Lovegrove JA, Gijsbers L, et al.. Milk and dairy consumption and risk of cardiovascular diseases and all-cause mortality: dose-response meta-analysis of prospective cohort studies.. Eur J Epidemiol. 2017. PMID 28374228. DOI 10.1007/s10654-017-0243-1. (abstract)
- Ralston RA, Lee JH, Truby H, Palermo CE, Walker KZ. A systematic review and meta-analysis of elevated blood pressure and consumption of dairy foods.. J Hum Hypertens. 2012. PMID 21307883. DOI 10.1038/jhh.2011.3. (abstract)
- Sacks FM, Lichtenstein AH, Wu JHY, Appel LJ, et al.. Dietary Fats and Cardiovascular Disease: A Presidential Advisory From the American Heart Association.. Circulation. 2017. PMID 28620111. DOI 10.1161/CIR.0000000000000510. (abstract)
- Skuladottir SS, Hjaltadottir I, Launer L, Cotch MF, et al.. Milk intake and hip fracture incidence in community-dwelling old Icelandic adults.. Osteoporos Int. 2023. PMID 37558894. DOI 10.1007/s00198-023-06883-8. (abstract)
- Venter C, Meyer R, Groetch M, Nowak-Wegrzyn A, et al.. World Allergy Organization (WAO) Diagnosis and Rationale for Action against Cow's Milk Allergy (DRACMA) guidelines update - XVI - Nutritional management of cow's milk allergy.. World Allergy Organ J. 2024. PMID 39228431. DOI 10.1016/j.waojou.2024.100931. (abstract)
- . CDC: Cow's milk and milk alternatives (infant and toddler nutrition). . . (full-text)
- . CDC: Raw milk. . . (full-text)
- . US FDA: Food Allergies. . . (full-text)
- . MedlinePlus: Lactose Intolerance. . . (full-text)
- . NHS: Dairy and alternatives in your diet. . . (full-text)
- . NHS: Lactose intolerance. . . (full-text)
- . NIDDK: Eating and nutrition for chronic kidney disease. . . (full-text)
- . USDA FoodData Central: Milk, whole, 3.25% milkfat, with added vitamin D (SR Legacy, FDC 171265). . . (full-text)
