Mushrooms · Culinary fungus
White truffle
Tuber magnatum · also called Italian white truffle, Alba white truffle, tartufo bianco
White truffle is a rare underground fungus eaten in tiny amounts for its strong garlic-and-cheese smell. Lab work has explained that smell, but no human study shows a health benefit. The main caution is buying something else: papers say cheaper truffles and flavoured oils are passed off as it. Mushroom allergy is rare but real.
General information, not medical advice. Last substantive update · Not medically reviewed. A named clinician has not signed off on this page. How this page is made
About White truffle
White truffle is the underground fruiting body of the fungus Tuber magnatum, eaten in tiny amounts for aroma. Chemistry explains its smell, but no human trial shows a health benefit; everything else is test-tube, cell-dish or rat work. The practical risks are fake or mixed-up truffle and flavoured oils. Mushroom allergy is rare but reported.
Fake and mixed-up white truffle
White truffle is among the most expensive foods, and papers say valued truffles are adulterated with cheaper ones. The look-alike is a cheaper white truffle (Bianchetto), which resembles Tuber magnatum. Four kinds of lab test can separate them: marker compounds, element profiles, sterol fingerprints and DNA or electrophoresis methods.
These papers show it can be done. None measures how often it happens in shops. Ask the seller for the species and origin.
What it is
Tuber magnatum is a fungus in the family Tuberaceae that grows underground with tree roots. Papers sampled it in Italy, Croatia, Hungary and Serbia. It is a fungus, not a plant. The general page on truffles covers the black and summer truffles and truffle oil.
'Magic truffles' are a different fungus sold for psilocybin.
Why it smells the way it does
More than 200 volatile compounds are found across truffle species, but only some give smell. In white Alba truffle the strongest were potato-like, malty, buttery and garlic-like compounds, and mixing them recreated the aroma. In an Italian sample, the garlic-like sulfur compound bis(methylthio)methane made up 78.72% of the volatiles.
The same compound is a marker that separates Tuber magnatum from the cheaper white truffle Tuber borchii, and it is also used in flavourings.
White truffle oil and sauces
In 18 Italian truffle-flavoured olive oils, 19 of 63 volatile compounds were attributed to truffle and 12 were foreign. Because the key white truffle smell is also used in flavourings, a truffle smell does not prove real truffle. Check the label and seller.
As a food, and what the lab work shows
By dry weight, truffles are mostly carbohydrate, then protein, with little fat, and the minerals are mostly potassium, phosphorus, sulfur, calcium and magnesium. Test-tube and cell work reports antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and cancer-cell findings, but a 2025 review says human trials remain absent.
At a glance
Traditional uses history, not proof
- Valued worldwide as a delicacy for aroma, and described as the most expensive edible underground mushroom (papers read).
- Older medicinal traditions were not read, so none is claimed here.
Studied for research
- Aroma chemistry, moderate (lab)
- Telling real from cheaper truffles, moderate (lab methods)
- Aroma differences by place, low (lab)
- Nutrients as a food, insufficient
- Antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and cancer-cell findings, insufficient (test tube)
- Everything else, insufficient
Main compounds
- Bis(methylthio)methane (garlic-like sulfur compound)
- 3-(Methylthio)propanal and malty, buttery notes
- Epicatechin and catechin
- Potassium, phosphorus, sulfur, calcium and magnesium
Common forms
- Fresh truffle, shaved
- Preserved truffle, sauces, butters and pastes (may be flavoured)
- Truffle oil (often flavoured)
- Laboratory extracts and grain-grown mycelium (research only)
Research links: Schlumpberger 2024: telling white truffle from a cheaper white species · Segelke 2020: element profiles to identify truffle species · Schmidberger 2017: key aroma compounds of white Alba truffle · Pacioni 2014: composition of truffle-flavoured oils · Research Library · Genes & Biomarkers Library
What it is and its history
- Accepted scientific name
- Tuber magnatum
- Naming authority
- Picco (GBIF)
- Common names
- White truffle (English); Italian white truffle (English); Alba white truffle (English); Tartufo bianco (Italian)
- Family or group
- Tuberaceae (a fungus family, not a plant)
- Classification
- Fungi > Ascomycota > Pezizomycetes > Pezizales > Tuberaceae > Tuber > Tuber magnatum
- Native range
- Papers in this file sampled Italy (Tuscany, Molise, Marche, Piedmont, Acqualagna), Croatia, Hungary and Serbia.
- Habitat
- Underground fungus growing with tree roots (reviews call truffles symbiotic hypogeous fungi).
- What it looks like
- Fruiting body: The edible part is the underground fruiting body. Papers say white truffles look alike and are hard to tell apart by sight.
- Cultivation
- Reviews say truffles are difficult to culture and preserve. Details were not read.
- Harvest and processing
- Not checked in the sources read.
- Look-alikes and adulterants
- Name: Bianchetto truffle (Tuber borchii Vittad. / Tuber albidum Pico in different papers); Note: A white truffle of much lower value that looks like Tuber magnatum and is the look-alike studied in fraud papers.; Name: Psilocybe 'magic truffles'; Note: A different fungus sold for psilocybin; unrelated to culinary truffle.
- Sustainability and conservation
- Not checked.
Traditional use and history history, not clinical proof
| Tradition or era | Documented use | Source |
|---|---|---|
| Modern gourmet cooking | Reviews describe truffles as a worldwide delicacy valued for aroma. A 2024 paper calls white truffle the most expensive edible underground mushroom. | p32566240 |
| Earlier history | Older history and medicinal traditions were not read, so none is stated here. | p41300498 |
Traditional use shows how it was used. It does not show that it works or is safe today.
What is inside, and how it may work
What it contains and how those compounds act in cells and animals. Laboratory and animal mechanisms are not proven effects in people.
Main compounds
| Compound | Family | Where it is concentrated | Activity studied | Level of evidence |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Bis(methylthio)methane (2,4-dithiapentane) | sulfur volatile | Fruiting body 78.72% of volatiles in an Acqualagna sample (Piatti 2024). | Garlic-like smell; the highest-ranked sulfur odorant in white truffle; also used in flavourings and a marker of T. magnatum against T. borchii in real truffle. 14 11 13 10 | Laboratory research |
| 3-(Methylthio)propanal, 2- and 3-methylbutanal, 2,3-butanedione, 1-pyrroline | aroma volatiles | Fruiting body | Potato-like, malty, buttery and amine-like notes in white Alba truffle. 14 | Laboratory research |
| Epicatechin and catechin | phenolic | Fruiting body | Main confirmed phenolics in T. magnatum; moderate antioxidant activity in lab tests. 3 | Laboratory research |
| Potassium, phosphorus, sulfur, calcium, magnesium | minerals | Fruiting body 97% of the elements measured in Acqualagna white truffle. | Food composition. 11 | Laboratory research |
Mechanisms, receptors and pathways
| Target or pathway | Gene or receptor | What was found | Level |
|---|---|---|---|
| COX-1 and 12-LOX products | COX-1, 12-LOX | T. magnatum extract inhibited their products in a test system; T. aestivum did not. 3 | Laboratory research |
| Antioxidant assays | Not applicable | Moderate radical scavenging linked to phenolics; mycelial fermentation products also showed antioxidant activity. 3 7 | Laboratory research |
Absorption, metabolism and elimination
- Absorption
- Not found in the sources read.
- Distribution
- Not found.
- Metabolism
- Not found.
- Elimination
- Not found.
- Bioavailability
- Not established.
Isolated compounds versus whole extracts
Real white truffle is a fresh food shaved over meals in small amounts. Oils, pastes and sauces may use real truffle, added aroma compounds or both. Lab extracts and grain-grown mycelium products are not the truffle people eat.
Nutritional composition
Dry-weight ranges for truffles in general (2025 review): carbohydrates 37 to 80%, protein 11 to 35%, fat 2 to 7%, fibre 4 to 13%. In Acqualagna white truffle, potassium, phosphorus, sulfur, calcium and magnesium were 97% of the elements measured. Ranges are quoted from other papers.
2 moderate certainty1 low certainty5 not enough evidence
What was looked at
The 8 benefits and uses checked for White truffle, each with how strong the evidence is. Tap one to open it.
- Aroma and flavour chemistry (the real use)Moderate certainty
- Aroma differences between places and single trufflesLow certainty
- Telling real white truffle from cheaper look-alikes (lab methods)Moderate certainty
- Nutrients and minerals as a foodNot enough evidence
- Antioxidant activity (laboratory only)Not enough evidence
- Inflammation chemicals (laboratory only)Not enough evidence
- Cancer cells in dishes (laboratory only)Not enough evidence
- White truffle mycelium products (rat and fish-embryo work)Not enough evidence
What is White truffle good for?
What white truffle is used for and how strong the evidence is for each. None is proven to help health. Read this together with the Safety tab.
Benefits, one by one
Each card is a research question, not a promise. Tap a goal to filter. Open a card to see the studies, doses and limits.
Aroma and flavour chemistry (the real use)
Moderate certaintyWhite truffle is bought for its smell. Lab work has found which compounds make it: a garlic-like sulfur compound, plus potato-like, malty, buttery and amine-like notes. Mixing those compounds back together recreated the smell.
3 studiesFresh truffle shaved over warm food in tiny amounts.
Studies, doses and limits
What the trials found
This is food chemistry, not a health effect. In white Alba truffle 20 odour-active regions were found. In a sample from the Acqualagna area of Italy, bis(methylthio)methane was 78.72% of the volatiles, linked to garlic-like, nutty, geosmin-like, floral, mushroom-like, pungent and green notes.
Results
Recombining compounds above their smell threshold mimicked the overall white truffle aroma. 1-pyrroline was identified as a key odorant for the first time (amine-like).
Effect sizes as reported
Aroma explained by a small set of compounds
Why this rating
Three independent lab studies agree on the main sulfur and malty compounds, but samples were few and aroma varies truffle by truffle.
Form and dose studied
Fresh truffle shaved over warm food in tiny amounts.
Who was studied
Tuber magnatum fruiting bodies (Italy)
Limits
Lab chemistry only. A smell is not a health benefit. Percentages describe the samples tested.
Why researchers looked
Aroma is why white truffle is eaten and sold, so chemists study which compounds create it.
Traditional use
Eaten as a luxury food; the sources read describe white truffle as a delicacy, not a remedy.
Proposed mechanism Laboratory research
In white Alba truffle the highest-ranked smell compounds were 3-(methylthio)propanal (potato-like), 2- and 3-methylbutanal (malty), 2,3-butanedione (buttery) and bis(methylthio)methane (garlic-like). Bis(methylthio)methane, 3-methylbutanal and 1-pyrroline were each more than 1000 times their smell threshold.
A proposed mechanism does not show that the effect happens in people.
Eaten in small amounts as a food. See the Safety tab for fake truffle, flavoured products and allergy.
Aroma differences between places and single truffles
Low certaintyTwo white truffles can smell different even from the same place. A study of truffles from four countries found single truffles varied more than regions did.
2 studiesNot applicable.
Studies, doses and limits
What the trials found
Truffles from Italy, Croatia, Hungary and Serbia were measured by gas chromatography and sensory tests. Extracts could be told apart by site, yet volatile profiles of single truffles varied more within sites than across areas. Bacterial communities varied a lot and were partly explained by provenance.
Results
Aroma is more linked to the individual truffle than to its origin, in this study.
Effect sizes as reported
Within-site variation larger than between-area variation
Why this rating
One study of this question for white truffle; sample counts were not in the abstract.
Who was studied
Tuber magnatum from four countries
Limits
Lab study. Not a guide to buying.
Why researchers looked
Buyers pay for origin, so scientists asked whether aroma can show where a truffle came from.
Traditional use
Eaten as a luxury food; the sources read describe white truffle as a delicacy, not a remedy.
Proposed mechanism Laboratory research
The main odour compounds were present in every truffle but at different amounts. Maturity did not explain the differences.
A proposed mechanism does not show that the effect happens in people.
Eaten in small amounts as a food. See the Safety tab for fake truffle, flavoured products and allergy.
Telling real white truffle from cheaper look-alikes (lab methods)
Moderate certaintyCheaper white truffles look much like the costly Alba truffle. Several labs have built tests that can tell them apart, which shows the risk of mislabelling is real enough that scientists worked on it.
4 studiesNot applicable.
Studies, doses and limits
What the trials found
Papers say cheaper species are mixed with or sold in place of valued ones, and that white truffles look alike. They do not measure how often it happens in shops. Methods: a marker volatile (bis(methylsulfanyl)methane) told T. magnatum from the cheaper white T. borchii; element profiles told T. magnatum from every other species tested in 59 samples; sterol patterns told five species apart; and capillary gel electrophoresis could identify and measure several species in 117 fruiting bodies.
Results
Methods work in the lab. No paper read gives the rate of fraud in the market.
Effect sizes as reported
Lab separation of species; fraud rate unknown
Why this rating
Several independent methods reach the same conclusion, but each used small sample sets and none surveyed the market.
Who was studied
Tuber magnatum, T. borchii (Bianchetto), other Tuber species
Limits
Method papers. They show it can be done, not how common fraud is.
Why researchers looked
White truffle is among the most expensive foods, so fraud with cheaper species is a concern for buyers.
Traditional use
Not a traditional use; a modern food-fraud question.
Proposed mechanism Laboratory research
Four different test types each separated white truffle from other species: a smell-marker test, an element-profile test, a sterol-fingerprint test and a DNA/electrophoresis test.
A proposed mechanism does not show that the effect happens in people.
See the Safety tab for what this means when buying.
Nutrients and minerals as a food
Not enough evidenceWhite truffle is mostly carbohydrate and protein by dry weight, and minerals are mostly potassium, phosphorus, sulfur, calcium and magnesium. It is eaten in a few grams at a time, so it adds almost nothing to a diet.
2 studiesShaved in tiny amounts.
Studies, doses and limits
What the trials found
A 2025 review quotes dry-weight ranges for truffles in general: carbohydrates 37 to 80%, protein 11 to 35%, fat 2 to 7% and fibre 4 to 13%. A study of Acqualagna white truffle found potassium, phosphorus, sulfur, calcium and magnesium were 97% of the elements measured.
Results
No health effect was tested.
Effect sizes as reported
Composition only
Why this rating
Composition numbers exist, but no study tested what eating white truffle does for health.
Form and dose studied
Shaved in tiny amounts.
Who was studied
Truffles in general; T. magnatum from Italy for minerals
Limits
Review ranges cover several species, not only white truffle. Portions are small.
Why researchers looked
People ask whether such an expensive food is also nutritious.
Traditional use
Eaten as a luxury food; the sources read describe white truffle as a delicacy, not a remedy.
Proposed mechanism None
No mechanism claimed; this is composition.
A proposed mechanism does not show that the effect happens in people.
Eaten in small amounts as a food. See the Safety tab for fake truffle, flavoured products and allergy.
Antioxidant activity (laboratory only)
Not enough evidenceExtracts of white truffle mopped up free radicals in test tubes. Nobody has tested whether eating white truffle does anything for the body.
2 studiesSolvent extracts made in the lab, which people do not eat.
Studies, doses and limits
What the trials found
No human trial. A 2025 review says clinical trials in humans remain absent.
Results
Moderate antioxidant activity in test-tube assays.
Effect sizes as reported
Test-tube activity only
Why this rating
Test-tube assays only. Activity in a dish does not show a benefit in the body.
Form and dose studied
Solvent extracts made in the lab, which people do not eat.
Who was studied
T. magnatum extracts
Limits
Extracts made with methanol or water, not food as eaten.
Why researchers looked
White truffle contains phenolic compounds that show antioxidant activity in tests.
Traditional use
No traditional medicinal use was found in the sources read.
Proposed mechanism Laboratory research
Methanol and water extracts of T. magnatum showed moderate antioxidant activity in several assays. The main phenolics found were epicatechin and catechin.
A proposed mechanism does not show that the effect happens in people.
Eaten in small amounts as a food. See the Safety tab for fake truffle, flavoured products and allergy.
Inflammation chemicals (laboratory only)
Not enough evidenceIn one test system an extract of white truffle blocked some chemicals made during inflammation. The summer truffle extract in the same study did not. It has not been tested in people.
1 studiesNot applicable.
Studies, doses and limits
What the trials found
No animal or human result was found.
Results
Inhibition of COX-1 and 12-LOX product synthesis by T. magnatum extract.
Effect sizes as reported
One lab result
Why this rating
One laboratory study, no replication, no human or animal data read.
Who was studied
T. magnatum extract
Limits
Single lab study. A test-system effect is not a benefit.
Why researchers looked
Researchers looked for anti-inflammatory activity in truffle extracts.
Traditional use
No traditional medicinal use was found in the sources read.
Proposed mechanism Laboratory research
T. magnatum extract inhibited the synthesis of COX-1 and 12-LOX pathway products in the test system; T. aestivum did not.
A proposed mechanism does not show that the effect happens in people.
Eaten in small amounts as a food. See the Safety tab for fake truffle, flavoured products and allergy.
Cancer cells in dishes (laboratory only)
Not enough evidenceSome white and summer truffle extracts were toxic to cancer cell lines in dishes. This is not a treatment and no person was tested.
2 studiesNot applicable.
Studies, doses and limits
What the trials found
No human trial. The 2025 review says most work is test-tube or preclinical.
Results
Cytotoxicity of extracts to cell lines.
Effect sizes as reported
Cell-dish activity only
Why this rating
Cell-line screening only; it often does not carry over to people.
Who was studied
T. magnatum and T. aestivum extracts
Limits
Not a treatment; killing cells in a dish is not a clinical effect.
Why researchers looked
Many natural extracts are screened against cancer cell lines as a first step.
Traditional use
No traditional medicinal use was found in the sources read.
Proposed mechanism Laboratory research
Methanol extracts were cytotoxic to some tumour cell lines (HeLa, MCF7, HT-29); water extracts were prominent against the breast cancer cell line MCF7. The study did not separate the species in the abstract.
A proposed mechanism does not show that the effect happens in people.
Do not use truffle as a cancer treatment.
White truffle mycelium products (rat and fish-embryo work)
Not enough evidenceA Taiwanese team grew white truffle mycelium on soybean and adlay and found antioxidant activity in extracts. Rats fed the product for 90 days showed no adverse effect level. This is a lab-grown product, not the truffle people eat, and no person was tested.
1 studiesMycelium grown on soybean and adlay medium.
Studies, doses and limits
What the trials found
No human study.
Results
Antioxidant tests and a 90-day rat safety study.
Effect sizes as reported
Rat and fish-embryo findings only
Why this rating
One laboratory team, animal and test-tube work only. The authors are proposing the product as an ingredient.
Form and dose studied
Mycelium grown on soybean and adlay medium.
Who was studied
T. magnatum mycelium (not fruiting body)
Limits
Different product from the truffle eaten as food. Not a human safety result.
Why researchers looked
Fruiting bodies are costly and scarce, so labs try growing mycelium as a cheaper source.
Traditional use
Not a traditional product.
Proposed mechanism Laboratory research
Antioxidant activity in water and ethanol extracts; water extract protected zebrafish embryos from hydrogen peroxide.
A proposed mechanism does not show that the effect happens in people.
Rat result does not prove safety in people.
Connections to the rest of health
How White truffle connects to the rest of our health knowledge graph. Every link says what kind of connection it is. A safety link (for example to the liver) is a warning, not a benefit. A study that merely mentions a topic never creates a benefit link.
Explore every connection: goals, body systems, organs, symptoms, genes
E. Health conditions
| Connected to | Kind of connection | Evidence status | Context | Studies |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Mushroom allergy | Adverse effect or risk | Very low certainty | Rare anaphylaxis to edible mushrooms is reported; no truffle case found. Preparation or compound: Edible fungi (truffle-specific data lacking) |
1 18 |
J. Genes, receptors and enzymes
| Connected to | Kind of connection | Evidence status | Context | Studies |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| COX-1 / 12-LOX pathway | Preliminary mechanism | In vitro | Inhibited by T. magnatum extract in a test system. | 3 |
L. Active compounds
| Connected to | Kind of connection | Evidence status | Context | Studies |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Bis(methylthio)methane (2,4-dithiapentane) | Biological association | In vitro | Garlic-like smell; the highest-ranked sulfur odorant in white truffle; also used in flavourings and a marker of T. magnatum against T. borchii in real truffle. Preparation or compound: Fruiting body |
14 11 13 10 |
| 3-(Methylthio)propanal, 2- and 3-methylbutanal, 2,3-butanedione, 1-pyrroline | Biological association | In vitro | Potato-like, malty, buttery and amine-like notes in white Alba truffle. Preparation or compound: Fruiting body |
14 |
| Epicatechin and catechin | Biological association | In vitro | Main confirmed phenolics in T. magnatum; moderate antioxidant activity in lab tests. Preparation or compound: Fruiting body |
3 |
| Potassium, phosphorus, sulfur, calcium, magnesium | Biological association | In vitro | Food composition. Preparation or compound: Fruiting body |
11 |
Each connection is stored with the ingredient, the connected record, the kind of connection, the evidence status, the supporting studies, the preparation or compound involved, and a review date (last reviewed October 25, 2026).
Evidence at a glance: what the research found for 8 outcomes
Each outcome below is one thing researchers measured. Certainty is how far the evidence can be trusted, not how well it works. The full studies are on the next tab.
The evidence
The research centre for White truffle. Every record here was checked against PubMed or the publisher's page; we never list a study we have not verified.
Evidence by outcome
Bars show how many studies we found for each outcome, not how well it works. People are added up across trials only (reviews are not added, to avoid double counting).
How we rate evidence
High certainty
Several well-run trials or reviews agree; further research is unlikely to change the picture much.
Moderate certainty
Good trials point the same way, but some doubt remains.
Low certainty
Small, short or inconsistent trials. The finding could change with better research.
Very low certainty
Very little or very weak human data. Treat as a possibility only.
Mixed findings
Trials or reviews disagree with each other.
Not enough evidence
Not enough human research to say either way.
Evidence against
Good research found no benefit, or found harm.
We take the reviewers' own risk-of-bias and GRADE statements where they exist, and otherwise judge from study size, design, consistency, directness and whether a product matches what is sold. Many publications do not make evidence high. Method note: We checked PubMed records and read abstracts for 17 papers (laboratory studies, one animal study, two papers on mushroom allergy, and two reviews of truffles) and checked species names in GBIF. EMA, FDA, EFSA, LiverTox and LactMed were not read. Numbers from papers come from abstracts or review text. Certainty ratings are the compiler's own reading.
Study library: every study we checked 18
| Study | Design | People | Product, dose, length | Result |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Ali 2024 Agaricus bisporus mushroom anaphylaxis: A case report and review of the literature. Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology: Global · PMID 39282616 · DOI |
Case report |
1 A 77-year-old woman with anaphylaxis after a button-mushroom omelette, plus 27 other cases from the literature |
Agaricus bisporus (button, portobello) and other edible mushrooms fruiting body Not shown here |
Reactions were positive to several boiled edible mushrooms. The review found 27 other cases (average age 28.8). Cross-sensitisation between edible mushrooms was clear but followed no consistent pattern. Mushroom allergens named in some cases included alpha-mannosidase, alpha-trehalose, mannitol and a ribosomal protein. Mushroom anaphylaxis is uncommon but reported Methods, limits and fundingOutcomes: Anaphylaxis after eating mushrooms Limitations: About button mushrooms, not truffles. No truffle case was found. Whether truffles cross-react is not known. Funding and conflicts: No funding; authors report no conflict. Read: abstract |
| Baldelli 2025 Bioactive Compounds and Antioxidant Potential of Truffles: A Comprehensive Review. Antioxidants (Basel) · PMID 41300498 · DOI |
Narrative review fungus |
Review of truffle composition and bioactivity | Truffle fruiting bodies and extracts fruiting body Not shown here |
Full text read (Europe PMC). Dry weight: carbohydrates 37 to 80%, protein 11 to 35%, fat 2 to 7%, fibre 4 to 13%. Its Table 1 gives T. aestivum carbohydrates 60 to 79%, protein 14 to 24%, fat 1 to 5%, and T. melanosporum carbohydrates 74 to 75%, protein 12 to 18%, fat 2 to 4%. Potassium, phosphorus and calcium are about 80 to 90% of the minerals. More than 200 volatile compounds across species, only about 30 to 60 aroma-active in one species. Says most studies are test-tube or preclinical, and 'clinical trials in humans remain absent'. No human trial found by the authors Methods, limits and fundingOutcomes: Composition, aroma, antioxidant and anti-tumour work, storage Limitations: Narrative review; table values are ranges across studies, not measurements made by the authors. Freezing and canning lowered antioxidant capacity of processed truffles in the work it cites. Funding and conflicts: Authors declare no conflicts of interest. Read: full text |
| Beara 2014 Phenolic profile, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and cytotoxic activities of black (Tuber aestivum Vittad.) and white (Tuber magnatum Pico) truffles. Food Chemistry · PMID 25038699 · DOI |
Laboratory study in vitro |
Methanol and water extracts of T. aestivum and T. magnatum fruiting bodies, tested in test tubes and cell lines | Methanol and water extracts of fruiting bodies fruiting body Not shown here |
14 of 45 phenolics checked were confirmed (main ones p-hydroxybenzoic acid, baicalein and kaempferol in T. aestivum; epicatechin and catechin in T. magnatum). Moderate antioxidant activity in both. Only T. magnatum inhibited COX-1 and 12-LOX products. Methanol extracts were toxic to some tumour cell lines; water extracts were notably active against MCF7 breast cells. Moderate antioxidant activity; anti-inflammatory activity only for T. magnatum; cell toxicity in dishes Methods, limits and fundingOutcomes: Phenolic profile, antioxidant assays, COX-1 and 12-LOX products, cytotoxicity in HeLa, MCF7 and HT-29 cells Limitations: Laboratory study: dishes and test tubes, no animals or people. Extracts are not the same as eating truffle. Funding and conflicts: Research support from non-US government sources per the record. Read: abstract |
| Bontempo 2020 Isotopic and elemental characterisation of Italian white truffle: A first exploratory study. Food and Chemical Toxicology · PMID 32777342 · DOI |
Laboratory study fungus |
White truffles (Tuber magnatum) from Tuscany, Molise, Marche, Piedmont and Croatia | Fruiting bodies fruiting body Not shown here |
All samples had values for toxic, potentially toxic or allergenic elements below the legal limits. Some element ratios and the sulfur and oxygen isotope ratios seemed to differ by geographic origin, so white truffles of different provenance might be told apart. All samples below legal limits for toxic elements Methods, limits and fundingOutcomes: Stable isotopes and 18 elements Limitations: First exploratory study; sample number not in the abstract. Applies to the regions sampled. Funding and conflicts: Not stated in the abstract. Read: abstract |
| Buntgen 2019 No radioactive contamination from the Chernobyl disaster in Hungarian white truffles (Tuber magnatum). Environmental Pollution · PMID 31284206 · DOI |
Laboratory study fungus |
10 Ten white truffle fruiting bodies and soil from southern Hungary |
Fruiting bodies fruiting body Not shown here |
All ten white truffles had non-significant caesium-137 values, although some soil samples had slight levels. The authors call it an all clear for white truffle hunters in the species' northernmost habitats. No significant caesium-137 Methods, limits and fundingOutcomes: Radiocaesium-137 Limitations: Ten truffles from one region. Does not cover other species or regions. Funding and conflicts: Not stated in the abstract. Read: abstract |
| GBIF 2026 GBIF Backbone Taxonomy API: Tuber magnatum, Tuber borchii, Tuber albidum GBIF · Source |
Taxonomy record n/a |
Name records | n/a Not shown here |
Checked 2026-10-25. Tuber magnatum Picco (key 5258456) is ACCEPTED, family Tuberaceae, order Pezizales, phylum Ascomycota. Tuber borchii Vittad. (key 5258463) and Tuber albidum Pico (key 8866197) are each listed as ACCEPTED species. Names confirmed Methods, limits and fundingOutcomes: Accepted names and family Limitations: Database record. Papers do not always agree on whether the Bianchetto truffle is called T. borchii or T. albidum. Funding and conflicts: Independent database Read: full text |
| Hsu 2021 Antioxidant Profile and Biosafety of White Truffle Mycelial Products Obtained by Solid-State Fermentation. Molecules · PMID 35011340 · DOI |
Animal study fungus |
Tuber magnatum mycelium grown on soybean and red adlay medium; tested in test tubes, zebrafish embryos and Sprague-Dawley rats | Mycelium grown on grain (not fruiting body) mycelial fermentation product Not shown here |
Water and ethanol extracts of the fermentation products had antioxidant activity in test-tube assays. A water extract protected zebrafish embryos from hydrogen peroxide stress. Rats fed the product for 90 days showed a no-observed-adverse-effect level, which the authors give as 3000 mg/kg body weight a day. The authors say the mycelial products could replace the expensive fruiting bodies as a source of antioxidants. No adverse effect level found in a 90-day rat study Methods, limits and fundingOutcomes: Antioxidant tests; protection of zebrafish embryos; 90-day rat safety Limitations: Test tube, fish embryo and rat only. The product is mycelium grown on soybean and adlay, not the truffle people eat. Not a human safety result. Funding and conflicts: Not stated in the abstract. Read: abstract |
| Lee 2020 Potentials of truffles in nutritional and medicinal applications: a review. Fungal Biology and Biotechnology · PMID 32566240 · DOI |
Narrative review fungus |
Review of laboratory, animal and compositional work on truffles (Tuber and desert truffles) | Truffle fruiting bodies and extracts fruiting body Not shown here |
Reviews phenolics, terpenoids, polysaccharides, anandamide, fatty acids and ergosterols and lab antitumour, antioxidant, antibacterial, anti-inflammatory and liver-protection findings. Full text read (Europe PMC): says more than 200 volatile compounds have been found; says truffle-flavoured oils contain more than 60 volatiles, 2,4-dithiapentane the most common; says truffles are highly perishable; its conclusion mentions 'no known side effects'. No human trial summarised; lab and animal findings only Methods, limits and fundingOutcomes: Composition, aroma, lab and animal bioactivity, preservation Limitations: Narrative review, not systematic. Mixes Tuber and desert truffles (Terfezia, Tirmania), which are different fungi. 'No known side effects' is the authors' statement, not a safety study. Funding and conflicts: Authors declare no conflict of interest; one author affiliation is a company laboratory (Plamica Labs). Read: full text |
| Niimi 2021 Geographical-based variations in white truffle Tuber magnatum aroma is explained by quantitative differences in key volatile compounds. New Phytologist · PMID 33555031 · DOI |
Laboratory study fungus |
T. magnatum fruiting bodies from Italy, Croatia, Hungary and Serbia | Fruiting bodies fruiting body Not shown here |
The main odour compounds were present in all truffles but at different levels. Aroma of individual truffles varied more within sites than between regions, and maturity level did not explain it. Aroma varies truffle to truffle Methods, limits and fundingOutcomes: Headspace aroma, sensory profiles, maturity, bacteria Limitations: Single species; aroma only. Funding and conflicts: Research support from non-US government sources per the record. Read: abstract |
| Pacioni 2014 Composition of commercial truffle flavored oils with GC-MS analysis and discrimination with an electronic nose. Food Chemistry · PMID 24176309 · DOI |
Laboratory study n/a |
18 18 olive oil samples flavoured with white or black truffle, bought in Italy |
Commercial truffle-flavoured olive oils Not shown here |
63 volatile compounds detected: 32 attributed to olive oil, 19 to truffles, and 12 foreign compounds of dubious origin (synthesis and/or breakdown). The authors say the finding confirms the established malpractice of using bis(methylthio)methane in black-truffle flavourings. 19 of 63 volatiles attributed to truffle; 12 foreign Methods, limits and fundingOutcomes: Volatile compounds by GC-MS; electronic nose Limitations: Only 18 Italian samples; not a survey of all oils on sale. Bis(methylthio)methane (also called 2,4-dithiapentane) also occurs naturally in white truffle, so its presence alone does not prove a synthetic source. Funding and conflicts: Research support from non-US government sources per the record. Read: abstract |
| Piatti 2024 White Acqualagna truffle (Tuber magnatum Pico): Evaluation of volatile and non-volatile profiles by GC-MS, sensory analyses and elemental composition by ICP-MS. Food Chemistry · PMID 38070235 · DOI |
Laboratory study fungus |
White truffle (Tuber magnatum) from the Acqualagna area of Italy | Fruiting bodies fruiting body Not shown here |
The volatile profile was mainly bis(methylthio)methane (78.72%) and minor compounds, linked to seven smell descriptors: garlic-like, nutty-like, geosmine-like, floral, mushroom-like, pungent and green/herbal. Potassium, phosphorus, sulfur, calcium and magnesium made up 97% of the elements measured. The truffle took up rare earth elements from the soil without discriminating between them. Bis(methylthio)methane 78.72% of volatiles in these samples Methods, limits and fundingOutcomes: Volatile profile, sensory descriptors, elements Limitations: One area of Italy; number of truffles not in the abstract. Percentages describe these samples, not all white truffles. Funding and conflicts: Not stated in the abstract. Read: abstract |
| Schelm 2020 Food Authentication: Identification and Quantitation of Different Tuber Species via Capillary Gel Electrophoresis and Real-Time PCR. Foods · PMID 32316117 · DOI |
Laboratory study fungus |
117 117 fruiting bodies of seven truffle species from different regions, plus some truffle products |
Fruiting bodies and products fruiting body Not shown here |
The authors say highly valued species are adulterated with cheaper ones, especially. The Bianchetto truffle (Tuber albidum) looks like the white Alba truffle but has little economic value. They built a real-time PCR test that detects and measures Asian black truffles in Tuber melanosporum down to 0.5%, and a capillary gel electrophoresis test that identifies and measures several species. PCR detection limit 0.5% for Asian black truffle in black Perigord truffle Methods, limits and fundingOutcomes: Methods to detect cheaper species mixed into expensive ones Limitations: The PCR test is for black truffle fraud. For white truffle the paper offers the species-identification (electrophoresis) assay and the look-alike warning. It does not measure how common fraud is. Funding and conflicts: Not stated in the abstract. Read: abstract |
| Schlumpberger 2024 Identification of Bis(methylsulfanyl)methane and Furan-2(5H)-one as Volatile Marker Compounds for the Differentiation of the White Truffle Species Tuber magnatum and Tuber borchii. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry · PMID 38630649 · DOI |
Laboratory study fungus |
Samples of Tuber magnatum and the cheaper white truffle Tuber borchii | Fruiting bodies fruiting body Not shown here |
The two species are both white truffles with similar looks, and the authors call telling them apart a particular problem for food fraud. Screening found bis(methylsulfanyl)methane marked T. magnatum and furan-2(5H)-one marked T. borchii. Exact measurement with labelled standards confirmed both. The authors say the method suits routine analysis. Two marker volatiles separate T. magnatum from T. borchii Methods, limits and fundingOutcomes: Volatile marker compounds that separate the two white species Limitations: A test-method paper. Sample numbers were not in the abstract. It does not say how often one species is sold as the other. The marker for T. magnatum is also used in synthetic flavourings, so it identifies a truffle only in a real truffle sample. Funding and conflicts: Not stated in the abstract. Read: abstract |
| Schmidberger 2017 Characterization of the Key Aroma Compounds in White Alba Truffle (Tuber magnatum pico) and Burgundy Truffle (Tuber uncinatum) by Means of the Sensomics Approach. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry · PMID 28965409 · DOI |
Laboratory study fungus |
White Alba truffle (T. magnatum) and Burgundy truffle (T. uncinatum) fruiting bodies | Aroma extracts of fruiting bodies fruiting body Not shown here |
20 odour-active regions in white truffle and 25 in Burgundy truffle. In white truffle the strongest were 3-(methylthio)propanal (potato-like), 2- and 3-methylbutanal (malty), 2,3-butanedione (buttery) and bis(methylthio)methane (garlic-like). Mixing the compounds back together mimicked the aroma of both. 1-pyrroline, described as amine-like and sperm-like, was a key odorant in both. Aroma recreated from identified compounds Methods, limits and fundingOutcomes: Odour-active compounds and their strength Limitations: Chemistry of smell only; says nothing about health. Funding and conflicts: No funding statement in the abstract. Read: abstract |
| Segelke 2020 Food Authentication: Species and Origin Determination of Truffles (Tuber spp.) by Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry and Chemometrics. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry · PMID 32520544 · DOI |
Laboratory study fungus |
59 59 truffle samples of five commercially relevant species |
Fruiting bodies fruiting body Not shown here |
Prices differ widely between species and the authors say it is hard to tell white from white and black from black by sight, so food fraud is likely. Their method told the white truffle T. magnatum from all the others, and black truffles with 90.4% accuracy. Cheaper T. indicum passed off as T. melanosporum could be ruled out by the method. 90.4% overall accuracy for black truffles Methods, limits and fundingOutcomes: Element profiles to tell species and origin apart Limitations: A test method paper. It does not say how common fraud is. Funding and conflicts: Not stated in the abstract. Read: abstract |
| Sommer 2020 Differentiation of European and Chinese Truffle (Tuber sp.) Species by Means of Sterol Fingerprints. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry · PMID 33138362 · DOI |
Laboratory study fungus |
Five Tuber species including T. magnatum, T. melanosporum, T. aestivum, T. albidum and T. indicum | Fruiting bodies fruiting body Not shown here |
Sterol patterns told the five species apart whatever the country of origin, using 27 sterols and eight marker compounds, to help prevent food fraud with 'valueless' Tuber species. Species told apart by sterol fingerprint Methods, limits and fundingOutcomes: Sterol patterns Limitations: A method paper; does not measure how much fraud exists. Funding and conflicts: Not stated in the abstract. Read: abstract |
| Strojnik 2020 Species and geographic variability in truffle aromas. Food and Chemical Toxicology · PMID 32442473 · DOI |
Laboratory study fungus |
460 460 fresh truffles of nine Tuber species from 11 countries |
Fruiting bodies fruiting body Not shown here |
Models based on the volatile compounds could tell groups of species apart with a small classification error. The authors say the models could be the basis of a framework to detect fraud in truffle products and to study how growing conditions change aroma. Species grouped by aroma profile with small error Methods, limits and fundingOutcomes: Aroma profile by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry Limitations: Abstract gives no figures for white truffle alone. A research model, not a shop-floor test. Funding and conflicts: Not stated in the abstract. Read: abstract |
| Xing 2022 Recent Advances in the Allergic Cross-Reactivity between Fungi and Foods. Journal of Immunology Research · PMID 36249419 · DOI |
Narrative review |
Review of allergy to fungi and fungus-related foods | Edible mushrooms, mycoprotein, foods fermented by fungi Not shown here |
Edible mushrooms and fungus-related foods can cause fungus food allergy syndrome through cross-reaction with airborne fungi. Symptoms range from oral allergy syndrome to severe anaphylaxis. Cross-reactions reported Methods, limits and fundingOutcomes: Fungus food allergy Limitations: Review; not truffle-specific. Funding and conflicts: Authors declare no conflict of interest. Read: abstract |
What we do not know yet
- No human trial of eating white truffle was found.
- No truffle allergy, pregnancy or children data.
- No survey of how common mislabelled white truffle or flavoured products are in trade.
- Regulator statements on truffles were not read.
- Look-alike fungi for wild white truffle were not examined.
How new research is added
New studies are found by a saved PubMed search and placed in a review queue. A person reads each one before it changes any evidence rating or safety wording. New publications never change ratings automatically.
Lab markers
What changed in blood or saliva tests during trials. A changed number is not the same as feeling or being healthier, and we give no "normal ranges".
Safety
What studies and official sources say about side effects, medicines and who should check first. Each point shows what kind of evidence it comes from.
Main points to know 4
- The main risk is buying something that is not white truffle. White truffle is one of the most expensive foods. Papers say valued truffle species are sold mixed with, or in place of, cheaper ones, and white truffles look alike by eye. A 2024 paper shows the cheaper white truffle Tuber borchii can be separated from Tuber magnatum with marker compounds, and a 2020 paper found element profiles could tell Tuber magnatum from every other species tested. None of these papers measures how often fraud happens. Ask for species and origin, and treat a very low price as a warning. Laboratory study 13 15 12 16
- White truffle oil and sauces may contain no truffle at all. In 18 Italian truffle-flavoured olive oils, 63 volatile compounds were found: 32 from the oil, 19 attributed to truffle and 12 foreign. Bis(methylthio)methane is the key smell of real white truffle, and it is also the compound the authors say is used in flavourings. Because of this, a garlic-truffle smell does not prove the product contains truffle. The label and seller matter more than the smell. Laboratory study 10 14 11 8
- No poisoning from white truffle was found, and no safety study exists. No report of poisoning or liver injury from Tuber magnatum was found in the sources read. That is not proof of safety: there is no human safety trial. Wild fungi in general should only be eaten when an expert has identified them; look-alike danger for white truffle was not examined in the sources read. Narrative review 8 2
- Mushroom allergy exists; no truffle case was found. A PubMed search on 2026-10-25 for truffle with allergy, allergic or anaphylaxis in the title or abstract returned no records. Anaphylaxis to edible mushrooms is uncommon but reported (one review found 27 other cases, with cross-reaction between mushroom species), and mould allergy can cross-react with fungus foods. Whether this extends to truffle is unknown. Case report 1 18
Side effects 2
| Effect | How often | Severity and recovery | Evidence |
|---|---|---|---|
| Allergic reaction to fungi (rare) Evidence is from other edible mushrooms. | No truffle cases found; edible-mushroom anaphylaxis is described as uncommon | mild to severe Not described | Case report 1 18 |
| No other adverse effect reported in the sources read Absence of reports is not proof of safety. | Not measured; no human safety trial | unknown unknown | Narrative review 8 2 |
Liver
No liver injury from white truffle was reported in the sources read. LiverTox was not searched. The only safety-style result is a 90-day rat study of a mycelium product grown on grain, which is a different product from the truffle eaten as food. 7
This is a safety connection. It is not evidence that White truffle supports liver health.
Medicines and supplements 3
| With | Why it matters | Importance | Evidence | What to do |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Prescription medicines in general prescription | No interaction with any medicine was found in the sources read. | No report found Not enough evidence 8 2 | Eating white truffle as a flavouring is not known to interact with medicines. Ask a doctor or pharmacist about any concentrated truffle extract or supplement, which has no safety data. | |
| Alcohol and other foods food | No interaction was found in the sources read. | No report found Not enough evidence 2 | None needed. | |
| Anticoagulants, immunosuppressants and other medicines that some medicinal mushrooms affect theoretical | Such interactions are discussed for some medicinal mushrooms; none was found for truffle. | Not studied for white truffle. This is a gap, not a finding. | No report found Not enough evidence 2 | If you take these medicines and plan a concentrated truffle product, ask your pharmacist first. |
Who should check first 2
| Situation | Advice | Evidence |
|---|---|---|
| Known mushroom or mould allergy | Ask an allergy doctor before eating white truffle, because cross-reaction between fungi is reported and truffle-specific data are missing. | Narrative review 18 1 |
| Pregnancy, breastfeeding and young children | No truffle-specific safety data were found for pregnancy, breastfeeding or children. Truffle shaved over a meal is a food, but ask a doctor or midwife if unsure, and avoid extracts or supplements. | No report found 2 |
Overdose, product quality and regulators
Summary. No poisoning from white truffle was described in the sources read.
Animal. A mycelium product (grown on soybean and adlay, not the truffle eaten as food) showed no adverse effect level in a 90-day rat study.
Human doses studied. No human feeding study found. This page gives no amounts.
High dose or long term signals. Not studied.
Overdose response. Not described. Seek medical help for any severe reaction after eating.
Genotoxicity. Not read.
Toxic or hazardous parts. Fungus fruiting body only. Toxic look-alike fungi were not examined in the sources read. Do not eat wild fungi unless an expert has identified them.
Findings in papers are species fraud, flavouring in place of truffle, and element and radiation checks on samples. No survey of white truffle products in shops was read.
Cheaper species sold as white truffle. Papers say valued truffles are adulterated with cheaper species and that Bianchetto (Tuber borchii / T. albidum in different papers) resembles white Alba truffle. Marker compounds, element profiles, sterol fingerprints and DNA-based tests can separate them in the lab. How often it happens in trade was not measured. 13 12 15 16
Flavoured products. In 18 Italian truffle-flavoured oils, 12 of 63 volatile compounds were foreign. The key white truffle smell compound is also used in flavourings, so smell cannot prove real truffle. 10 11
Toxic elements. All white truffle samples from five Italian regions and Croatia had values for toxic, potentially toxic or allergenic elements below legal limits in an exploratory study. 4
Rare earth elements. Truffles from Acqualagna took up rare earth elements from the soil without discriminating between them. No health meaning was drawn. 11
Radioactivity. Ten white truffles from southern Hungary had non-significant caesium-137; other regions were not tested. 5
Spoilage. Truffles are highly perishable, and reviews say processing such as freezing changes aroma. 8 2
When to get medical help
- Swelling of lips, tongue or throat, wheezing, faintness or widespread hives soon after eating: call emergency services.
- Vomiting, severe belly pain or confusion after eating any wild fungus: seek urgent medical care and keep a sample if possible.
- Itchy mouth or tummy upset that returns each time you eat truffle or other mushrooms: see a doctor.
If someone may be poisoned or in a crisis, contact a clinician or emergency service straight away. In the US, Poison Control is 1-800-222-1222.
General information only, not medical advice. Ask a clinician or pharmacist before use, especially with medicines, in pregnancy or with a health condition. See the Natural Remedy Safety guide.
Frequently asked questions
What is white truffle?
What gives white truffle its smell?
Is white truffle ever sold as something it is not?
Which cheaper truffle looks like white truffle?
Can tests tell real white truffle from fakes?
Is white truffle oil made from real truffle?
Does white truffle smell the same everywhere?
No. In truffles from Italy, Croatia, Hungary and Serbia the same main compounds were present at different levels, and single truffles varied more within a site than between areas.
Does white truffle have health benefits?
Can you be allergic to white truffle?
Is white truffle safe in pregnancy or for children?
No truffle-specific data were found. Ask a doctor or midwife if you are unsure, and avoid extracts or supplements, which have no safety data.
Does white truffle interact with medicines?
Explore by health goal
Editorial transparency
- Written by
- AlternativeMed editorial team. Research compiled with AI assistance, then checked against PubMed records.
- Medical review
- None. This page has not been reviewed by a physician or pharmacist.
- First published
- 2026-10-25
- Last substantive update
- 2026-10-25
- How we research
- We checked PubMed records and read abstracts for 17 papers (laboratory studies, one animal study, two papers on mushroom allergy, and two reviews of truffles) and checked species names in GBIF. EMA, FDA, EFSA, LiverTox and LactMed were not read. Numbers from papers come from abstracts or review text. Certainty ratings are the compiler's own reading.
- How we rate evidence
- See "How we rate evidence" in the Evidence tab.
- Independence
- No product is promoted on this page. No affiliate links are shown. This page is information, not a recommendation to eat or buy white truffle.
Sources 18
Each source was opened and checked. Where we read only the abstract, it says so. The small numbers in the text point here.
- Ali SB, Smith W. Agaricus bisporus mushroom anaphylaxis: A case report and review of the literature.. Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology: Global. 2024. PMID 39282616. DOI 10.1016/j.jacig.2024.100324. (abstract)
- Baldelli S, Aiello G, De Bruno A, et al. Bioactive Compounds and Antioxidant Potential of Truffles: A Comprehensive Review.. Antioxidants (Basel). 2025. PMID 41300498. DOI 10.3390/antiox14111341. (full text)
- Beara IN, Lesjak MM, Cetojevic-Simin DD, et al. Phenolic profile, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and cytotoxic activities of black (Tuber aestivum Vittad.) and white (Tuber magnatum Pico) truffles.. Food Chemistry. 2014. PMID 25038699. DOI 10.1016/j.foodchem.2014.05.116. (abstract)
- Bontempo L, Camin F, Perini M, et al. Isotopic and elemental characterisation of Italian white truffle: A first exploratory study.. Food and Chemical Toxicology. 2020. PMID 32777342. DOI 10.1016/j.fct.2020.111627. (abstract)
- Buntgen U, Jaggi M, Egli S, et al. No radioactive contamination from the Chernobyl disaster in Hungarian white truffles (Tuber magnatum).. Environmental Pollution. 2019. PMID 31284206. DOI 10.1016/j.envpol.2019.06.108. (abstract)
- GBIF. GBIF Backbone Taxonomy API: Tuber magnatum, Tuber borchii, Tuber albidum. GBIF. 2026. (full text)
- Hsu JY, Chen MH, Lai YS, Chen SD. Antioxidant Profile and Biosafety of White Truffle Mycelial Products Obtained by Solid-State Fermentation.. Molecules. 2021. PMID 35011340. DOI 10.3390/molecules27010109. (abstract)
- Lee H, Nam K, Zahra Z, et al. Potentials of truffles in nutritional and medicinal applications: a review.. Fungal Biology and Biotechnology. 2020. PMID 32566240. DOI 10.1186/s40694-020-00097-x. (full text)
- Niimi J, Deveau A, Splivallo R. Geographical-based variations in white truffle Tuber magnatum aroma is explained by quantitative differences in key volatile compounds.. New Phytologist. 2021. PMID 33555031. DOI 10.1111/nph.17259. (abstract)
- Pacioni G, Cerretani L, Procida G, et al. Composition of commercial truffle flavored oils with GC-MS analysis and discrimination with an electronic nose.. Food Chemistry. 2014. PMID 24176309. DOI 10.1016/j.foodchem.2013.09.016. (abstract)
- Piatti D, Marconi R, Caprioli G, et al. White Acqualagna truffle (Tuber magnatum Pico): Evaluation of volatile and non-volatile profiles by GC-MS, sensory analyses and elemental composition by ICP-MS.. Food Chemistry. 2024. PMID 38070235. DOI 10.1016/j.foodchem.2023.138089. (abstract)
- Schelm S, Siemt M, Pfeiffer J, et al. Food Authentication: Identification and Quantitation of Different Tuber Species via Capillary Gel Electrophoresis and Real-Time PCR.. Foods. 2020. PMID 32316117. DOI 10.3390/foods9040501. (abstract)
- Schlumpberger P, Steinhaus M. Identification of Bis(methylsulfanyl)methane and Furan-2(5H)-one as Volatile Marker Compounds for the Differentiation of the White Truffle Species Tuber magnatum and Tuber borchii.. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. 2024. PMID 38630649. DOI 10.1021/acs.jafc.4c00714. (abstract)
- Schmidberger PC, Schieberle P. Characterization of the Key Aroma Compounds in White Alba Truffle (Tuber magnatum pico) and Burgundy Truffle (Tuber uncinatum) by Means of the Sensomics Approach.. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. 2017. PMID 28965409. DOI 10.1021/acs.jafc.7b04073. (abstract)
- Segelke T, von Wuthenau K, Neitzke G, et al. Food Authentication: Species and Origin Determination of Truffles (Tuber spp.) by Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry and Chemometrics.. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. 2020. PMID 32520544. DOI 10.1021/acs.jafc.0c02334. (abstract)
- Sommer K, Krauss S, Vetter W. Differentiation of European and Chinese Truffle (Tuber sp.) Species by Means of Sterol Fingerprints.. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. 2020. PMID 33138362. DOI 10.1021/acs.jafc.0c06011. (abstract)
- Strojnik L, Grebenc T, Ogrinc N. Species and geographic variability in truffle aromas.. Food and Chemical Toxicology. 2020. PMID 32442473. DOI 10.1016/j.fct.2020.111434. (abstract)
- Xing H, Wang J, Sun Y, et al. Recent Advances in the Allergic Cross-Reactivity between Fungi and Foods.. Journal of Immunology Research. 2022. PMID 36249419. DOI 10.1155/2022/7583400. (abstract)
Where to buy
Check the label first. Whatever you buy, look for these:
- Fruiting body versus mycelium on grain: the label should say which
- The extract type and the beta-glucan amount, if stated
- A third-party testing mark
- Interactions: ask a pharmacist if you take medicines or blood thinners
Talk to a pharmacist or doctor before you start any supplement, especially if you take medicines. See the Safety tab for interactions.
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