Fenugreek seeds and ground seed. The seed is the part used.

Herbs & Botanicals · Herbs · Kitchen spice also sold as seed and extract supplements, with low-certainty evidence at best

Fenugreek

Q: Does fenugreek lower blood sugar?

Probably a little, in people with type 2 diabetes, but the evidence is weak. Several pooled analyses of small trials found modest falls in fasting sugar and HbA1c, for example about 0.6 to 0.9 points for HbA1c. The trials are mostly low quality and disagree, and one analysis found no clear fall in fasting or after-meal sugar. The US National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health says there is not enough high-quality evidence. It cannot replace diabetes medicine.

Q: Is it safe to take fenugreek with diabetes medicine?

It needs medical supervision. Fenugreek can lower blood sugar, so it may add to metformin, sulfonylureas or insulin. The EU monograph says blood sugar control should be closely monitored in people treated for diabetes, and the NCCIH says large amounts may cause a harmful drop in blood sugar. Tell your doctor, and know the signs of low blood sugar.

Q: Does fenugreek boost testosterone?

Maybe slightly, but the evidence is very uncertain. A 2026 review of 13 trials in men found a small rise in total testosterone, no clear rise in free testosterone, no trial at low risk of bias, and certainty rated very low; it says the evidence does not support testosterone-boosting claims. Many trials tested branded extracts and some were sponsored or had no placebo.

Q: Does fenugreek increase breast milk?

It is very uncertain. A Cochrane review rated the evidence low to very low for natural milk boosters including fenugreek. Some small trials found more milk, one found a difference at day 7 but not day 15, and a trial of lactation cookies found no effect. A National Library of Medicine database says the effect may be mostly psychological. Talk to a lactation consultant and doctor first; see the safety tab for risks.

Q: Why does fenugreek make me smell like maple syrup?

Fenugreek can give urine, sweat and skin a maple-syrup smell. It is harmless in itself. One flavour compound, sotolone, is shared by fenugreek and by the urine of patients with maple syrup urine disease, a rare inherited illness of babies, and mothers who took fenugreek in labour had newborns with this smell, which led to a false suspicion of the disease. Tell the medical team if a mother took fenugreek, and always get a baby who is unwell checked.

Q: Is fenugreek safe in pregnancy?

It is not recommended in medicinal amounts. The EU monograph does not recommend use in pregnancy or in women who could become pregnant and are not using contraception, because animal studies showed reproductive toxicity. The NCCIH says it is not safe in pregnancy in amounts larger than found in food and links it to birth defects. We found no controlled human trial in pregnancy. Eating fenugreek as a spice in food is different.

Q: Is fenugreek safe while breastfeeding, and for babies?

Safety data are limited. The EU monograph does not recommend use during breastfeeding or under age 18. A national drug database notes limited data and lists gut upset, allergy, asthma worsening and the maple-syrup odour of urine, sweat and possibly breast milk. The Cochrane review reported hives in infants and maple-syrup urine odour as the minor effects. One new mother developed a severe blistering skin reaction. Ask a doctor first.

Q: Can people with peanut allergy take fenugreek?

They should avoid it. Fenugreek is a legume, its proteins resemble major peanut allergens, and in one study most blood samples from peanut-allergic patients also reacted to fenugreek. About 2 mg of powder caused symptoms in one challenge. The EU lists allergy to peanut, soya and other legumes as a contraindication. Reactions include wheezing, facial swelling and anaphylaxis.

Q: Does fenugreek interact with blood thinners?

Possibly. One woman on warfarin had a rise in her INR (blood-thinning test) when she took products with boldo and fenugreek; it fell when she stopped and rose again when she restarted. Reviews list fenugreek as a possible interaction, but nearly all the evidence is single cases. Tell your prescriber and ask about INR checks.

Q: Does fenugreek help period pain or menopause symptoms?

Possibly a little, but the evidence is low quality. A 2024 analysis of four trials found less period pain than placebo and the same as a standard painkiller, but rated the effect highly uncertain. Three small trials of branded extracts reported fewer hot flushes and night sweats in women around menopause, and two found rises in estradiol; women with hormone-sensitive conditions should ask a doctor first.

Trigonella foenum-graecum L. · also called Fenugreek, Greek hay, alholva or fenogreco (Spanish), fenugrec (French), Bockshornklee (German), methi (Hindi), 胡芦巴 hú lú bā (Chinese)

Fenugreek is a legume plant whose seeds are a common spice in curries and are also sold as ground seed, seed extracts, fibre and milk-boosting teas. It is in the same plant family as peanut and soya. Cooking with it is normal; this profile is about fenugreek taken as a health product. The best-studied use is blood sugar in people with type 2 diabetes, rated low. Cholesterol, after-meal sugar, menstrual pain and menopause symptoms are also low. Testosterone, milk supply, blood pressure and several other uses are very low, and body weight is against. Fenugreek can lower blood sugar, can cause serious allergy in people with peanut or other legume allergy, is not recommended in pregnancy, and can make urine and sweat smell of maple syrup.

General information, not medical advice. Last substantive update October 25, 2026 · Not medically reviewed. A named clinician has not signed off on this page. How this page is made

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About Fenugreek

Fenugreek (Trigonella foenum-graecum) is a legume whose seeds are a familiar curry spice. The seeds are also sold as ground seed, seed extracts, fibre and milk-boosting teas. Its best-studied use is blood sugar in people with type 2 diabetes, rated low: several pooled analyses of small, mostly low-quality trials found modest falls, one did not, and the US National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health says there is not enough high-quality evidence. Cholesterol, after-meal blood sugar from fenugreek foods, menstrual pain and menopause symptoms are also low. Testosterone in men and breast milk supply are very low, and body weight is against. Safety matters more than for most spices: maple-syrup body odour, blood sugar lowering with diabetes drugs, allergy including cross-reaction with peanut and other legumes, an effect on warfarin in one case, and a recommendation against use in pregnancy, breastfeeding and under age 18. For amounts, ask a doctor or pharmacist.

What it is

Fenugreek (Trigonella foenum-graecum) is an annual plant of the legume family (Fabaceae), related to peanut, soya, chickpea and lentil. The plant name is accepted in the GBIF plant database.

The seed is the part nearly always used. Studies in this profile tested ground seed, seed extracts (including patented, branded ones), seed fibre or flakes, fenugreek-enriched bread, and mixed teas and capsules. No human trial of fenugreek leaf was found. Because the products differ so much, a result for one product cannot be assumed for another.

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Traditional and current uses

A review says fenugreek has been used in Iran, India and China for centuries, including for diabetes, milk supply and period discomfort. We could not check a dated source. The EU lists traditional use of fenugreek seed for temporary loss of appetite and, as a poultice, for minor skin inflammation, based on long-standing use only.

Today fenugreek is mainly taken for blood sugar and cholesterol, milk supply, male vitality and testosterone, and menopause symptoms. Most of these uses rest on small trials, many of branded extracts.

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What the research shows

Blood sugar has the most research: pooled analyses of up to 14 small trials mostly found modest falls in fasting sugar and HbA1c, with big differences between trials and one analysis that did not find a fasting-sugar fall. Cholesterol and triglycerides fell slightly on average. Weight and BMI did not change.

For testosterone, the newest 2026 analysis found a small rise in total testosterone, no clear change in free testosterone and very low certainty. For milk supply, a Cochrane review found the evidence low to very low. Menstrual pain and menopause symptoms improved in a few small trials, mostly of branded extracts. Almost all studies were read as abstracts only.

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Who needs to be careful

People with peanut, soya, chickpea or other legume allergy should avoid fenugreek; the EU lists this as a contraindication. People taking diabetes medicines or warfarin should tell their doctor first. The EU does not recommend fenugreek in pregnancy, in breastfeeding, in women who could become pregnant without contraception, or under age 18.

A mother who takes fenugreek, or a baby of a mother who took it during labour, may smell of maple syrup. That smell is harmless but can be mistaken for a rare newborn disease, so tell the medical team.

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At a glance

Traditional uses history, not proof

Iran, India and China: a review says fenugreek seeds and leaves have been used in traditional medicine for centuries, for digestion, milk supply, period and menopause discomfort, blood sugar and cholesterol; the review gives no dated source in its abstract.
European herbal medicine: the EU herbal monograph lists traditional use of the seed for temporary loss of appetite and, as a warm poultice, for minor skin inflammation, based on long-standing use rather than trials.
Milk supply: used in many regions to increase breast milk, and found in many milk-boosting teas and capsules.

Studied for research

Type 2 diabetes blood sugar, cholesterol and after-meal blood sugar, low
Menstrual pain, menopause symptoms and male libido, low
Testosterone in men, breast milk supply, blood pressure, women's libido, muscle, PCOS, appetite and prediabetes, very low
Insulin resistance, mixed; body weight and BMI, against
Fatty liver, type 1 diabetes, prostate symptoms, Alzheimer's and Parkinson's disease, insufficient

Main compounds

Furostanol saponins such as protodioscin, and diosgenin: plant steroid compounds used to standardise extracts
4-hydroxyisoleucine: an amino acid that raised insulin release in lab studies of rat and human cells
Seed gum and fibre (galactomannans): a thick fibre that may slow sugar absorption
Trigonelline (an alkaloid) and sotolone (a flavour compound that gives the maple-syrup smell)

Common forms

Whole or ground seed and seed tea
Seed extracts, including branded extracts
Seed fibre, flakes or fenugreek-enriched foods
Milk-boosting teas, capsules and testosterone-booster blends that contain fenugreek among other ingredients

Research links: US National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health: Fenugreek · EU draft herbal monograph on fenugreek seed, revision 1 (European Medicines Agency) · Fenugreek and blood sugar: pooled analysis of 10 trials (abstract) · Fenugreek and testosterone in men: 2026 systematic review (abstract) · Oral milk boosters: Cochrane review (abstract) · Research Library · Genes & Biomarkers Library

The plant and its history

Accepted scientific name: Trigonella foenum-graecum L. (fenugreek)
Naming authority: L., published in Sp. Pl.: 777 (1753) (GBIF). NCBI authority string: Trigonella foenum-graecum L., 1753.
Synonyms: Trigonella foenum-graecum subsp. culta Gams; Medicago foenum-graecum (L.) E.H.L.Krause; Foenugraecum officinale Moench, 1794; Folliculigera foenum-graecum (L.) Pasq., 1867; Telis foenum-graecum (L.) Kuntze
Common names: Fenugreek (English); Greek hay (English); Alholva (Spanish); Fenogreco (Spanish); Fenugrec (French); Bockshornklee (German); Fieno greco comune (Italian); Feno-grego (Portuguese); मेथी (methi) (Hindi); حلبة (hulba) (Arabic); 胡芦巴 (hú lú bā) (Chinese)
Botanical family: Fabaceae (legume or pea family), the same family as peanut, soya, chickpea and lentil. This is why allergy cross-reaction with peanut and other legumes matters.
Classification: Plantae > Tracheophyta > Magnoliopsida > Fabales > Fabaceae > Trigonella > Trigonella foenum-graecum
Native range: A narrative review (Sun 2021) says fenugreek is native to parts of Iran to the north of India and is now grown in other regions. We did not verify this in a primary botanical source.
Habitat: Not verified in a source read for this file.
What the plant looks like: Roots: Not part of the medicinal use in the sources read.; Stems: Not verified in a source read.; Leaves: A narrative review (Sun 2021) says seeds and leaves are used in traditional medicine. No human trial of leaf was found.; Flowers: Not verified in a source read.; Fruit: The seed is the part used in the EU monograph and in nearly all trials: Ph. Eur. monograph for the herbal substance; the products are whole or powdered seed, dry extract (4:1, ethanol 20%) or soft extract (5-6:1, ethanol 60%).
Cultivation: Not verified from a source read.
Harvest and processing: Not verified in a source read. What is documented: EU traditional preparations of comminuted or powdered seed, tea or macerate, dry and soft extracts (EU draft monograph); trials used seed powder, hydroalcoholic extracts, branded extracts rich in furostanol saponins or protodioscin, defatted seed flakes, isolated seed fibre, and fenugreek-enriched breads.
Look-alikes and adulterants: Name: Other Trigonella species (for example Trigonella caerulea, "blue fenugreek", and Trigonella corniculata); Note: Accepted separate species in GBIF in the same family. Studies and products may name them; results for one species should not be carried over to fenugreek.; Name: Goat's rue (Galega officinalis); Note: Another Fabaceae milk-booster often sold in mixtures with fenugreek and fennel; a separate plant.; Name: Fennel (Foeniculum vulgare); Note: Often sold alongside fenugreek as a milk booster, but a different plant in the carrot family (Apiaceae).; Name: Mixed products; Note: Many milk-boosting teas and capsules and testosterone-booster blends contain fenugreek plus other ingredients; results are for the mixture.
Sustainability and conservation: Not verified. No IUCN assessment was retrieved.

The plant and the parts used

Fenugreek seeds, ground fenugreek and a few dried leaves on a wooden table — Fenugreek seeds and ground seed, the part used.

A glass cup of golden fenugreek tea beside a pile of fenugreek seeds — Fenugreek seed tea.

Traditional use and history history, not clinical proof

Tradition or era	Documented use	Source
Iran, India and China, traditional medicine	A 2021 narrative review says fenugreek has been a notable multipurpose medicinal and traditional herb in Iran, India and China for centuries, with seeds and leaves traditionally used for digestion, milk supply, period and menopause discomfort, blood sugar and cholesterol. It cites no single dated source in the abstract; treat the dates as unverified.	p33245271
Europe, EU traditional herbal medicine	The EU herbal monograph (first adopted 27 January 2011, revised in a March 2021 draft) lists two traditional-use indications for fenugreek seed: temporary loss of appetite (taken by mouth) and symptomatic treatment of minor skin inflammation (warm infusion applied as a cataplasm). The monograph says such use is based "exclusively on long-standing use" and not on clinical proof.	s-ema-hmpc-fenugreek-draft
Milk supply	LactMed says fenugreek has been used in many regions as a galactogogue (a milk booster) and is in many proprietary milk-boosting mixtures.	p30000838
Diabetes in Asia	The first pooled analysis states fenugreek is widely used in cooking and as a traditional medicine for diabetes in Asia.	p24438170
Modern science, from the 1990s	An early trial of defatted fenugreek seed in type 1 diabetes was published in 1990; the insulin-releasing amino acid 4-hydroxyisoleucine was isolated and described in 1998 (lab work). Wikipedia was not used for history.	p2194788

Traditional use shows how a plant was used. It does not show that a supplement works or is safe today.

What is inside, and how it may work

What the plant contains and how those compounds act in cells and animals. Laboratory and animal mechanisms are not proven effects in people.

Main compounds

Compound	Family	Where it is concentrated	Activity studied	Level of evidence
Diosgenin PubChem 99474	steroidal sapogenin	Seed	A plant steroid described in a 2023 review as mainly available in fenugreek and studied for effects on testosterone and strength. Its effects in people are not established. ^{40 101}	Pharmacological theory
Protodioscin (furostanol saponin) PubChem 441891	steroidal saponin	Seed Branded extracts used in trials are enriched, for example "20% protodioscin" (Furosap) and an extract with a 3:1 protodioscin-to-trigonelline ratio (Khanna 2020); a different extract (Furocyst) is about 40% furostanol saponins.	Used to standardise extracts tested for testosterone, menopause and PCOS. Human effects of the pure compound are not shown. ^{53 44 87 101}	Controlled trial
Trigonelline PubChem 5570	pyridine alkaloid	Seed	Named with protodioscin as a standardisation marker; a laboratory and animal compound studied for diabetes and brain effects. No human trial of the pure compound was found in our reading. ^{44 101}	Animal research
4-Hydroxyisoleucine PubChem 2773624	non-protein amino acid	Seed	Raised insulin release from rat and human pancreatic islets only when glucose was high, and improved glucose tolerance in rats and dogs. A candidate for part of fenugreek's sugar-lowering action but not shown in human trials. ^{77 13 101}	Laboratory research
Sotolone (sotolon) PubChem 62835	furanone flavour compound	Seed	A flavour compound of fenugreek and also found in the urine of patients with maple syrup urine disease. Responsible for the maple-syrup smell in that disease; LactMed attributes the smell after fenugreek to it. ^{68 1 101}	Laboratory research
2,5-Dimethylpyrazine PubChem 31252	pyrazine	Appears in sweat after fenugreek tea	One of eight compounds that appeared in armpit sweat only after fenugreek and gave the best-perceived maple-syrup note in two men. ^{56 100}	Human data
Seed gum and fibre (galactomannans, mucilage)	polysaccharide fibre	Seed A review lists protein, fibre, gum, lipids, moisture, ash and starch as the main seed components; no percentages were checked.	Fibre thickens in the gut; used in food trials (bread, flakes, isolated fibre) that lowered the sugar rise after a meal or raised fullness. ^{86 72 22 55}	Controlled trial
Flavonoids and isoflavones (quercetin, luteolin, genistein, vitexin)	polyphenols	Seed	LactMed lists these among the seed compounds. Their role in human effects is not shown. ¹	Laboratory research

Mechanisms, receptors and pathways

Target or pathway	Gene or receptor	What was found	Level
Glucose-dependent insulin release from pancreatic beta cells	Insulin secretion (no single receptor identified in the abstracts)	4-hydroxyisoleucine from fenugreek increased insulin release from isolated rat and human islets in a glucose-dependent way, and improved glucose tolerance in rats and dogs. This is lab and animal evidence; pooled human trials show only small changes in insulin resistance. ^{77 13 46}	Laboratory research
Slowed sugar absorption by seed fibre	Not applicable	Added fenugreek seed flour lowered the glycemic index of baked foods in healthy adults, consistent with a fibre effect in the gut. No trial in the sources read measured the mechanism. ^{72 52 22}	Pharmacological theory
Insulin sensitivity and melanin-concentrating hormone (MCH)	PMCH / MCH	In a clamp study in healthy volunteers the authors report improved insulin sensitivity that correlated with lower plasma MCH; abstract gives no numbers. ⁴⁷	Human data
Sex hormones	Testosterone, estradiol, FSH, SHBG	Trials of branded extracts reported small rises in total testosterone in men (pooled SMD 0.25 to 0.32) and rises in estradiol or free testosterone in women in some trials. Mechanism unknown; the idea that saponins slow testosterone breakdown is from case-report authors, not tested here. ^{92 40 79 44 70}	Human data
Prolactin and milk production	PRL	In 68 mothers of preterm babies fenugreek did not change prolactin, while milk volume was higher on day 7 but not on day 15. LactMed says some studies suggest insulin, prolactin and oxytocin changes but that the effect may be mostly psychological. ^{73 1}	Human data
Drug-metabolising enzymes	CYP2D6, CYP3A4	Fenugreek extract blocked both enzymes in human liver microsomes at 50 to 100 microgram/ml, but in six volunteers taking the seed powder for a week, enzyme activity (urinary metabolite ratios) did not change significantly. ³	Human data
Allergen cross-reaction with peanut	IgE binding to 7S vicilin and 11S legumin storage proteins	Fenugreek vicilin and legumin have homology to peanut allergens Ara h 1 and Ara h 3; IgE from peanut-allergic patients bound fenugreek proteins at 50 to 74 kDa. ^{24 23}	Laboratory research
Odour production	Not applicable	Sotolone is present in fenugreek and in the urine of patients with maple syrup urine disease; in sweat after fenugreek tea other compounds, notably 2,5-dimethylpyrazine, gave the best match to the odour. ^{68 56}	Human data

Absorption, metabolism and elimination

Absorption: No human blood-level data for diosgenin, protodioscin, trigonelline or 4-hydroxyisoleucine after eating fenugreek were found in the sources read.
Distribution: Not established in humans.
Metabolism: Not established in humans. Odour compounds appear in urine and sweat after fenugreek, showing that some constituents or their products are excreted that way.
Elimination: Not found. LactMed says the maple-syrup odour appears in urine, sweat, faeces and possibly breast milk.
Bioavailability: Not established. Extract makers claim better bioavailability for branded extracts, but no study read measured it in people.

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Isolated compounds versus whole extracts

No single compound has been shown to explain fenugreek's effects in people. Trials used whole seed powder (grams a day), seed fibre, defatted flakes, food products and branded extracts standardised to saponins or protodioscin (hundreds of milligrams a day). Results for one preparation cannot be assumed for another, and several extract trials involve the product makers.

Nutritional composition

Fenugreek seeds are rich in protein, fibre and gum (a narrative review lists protein, fibre, gum, lipids, moisture, ash and starch), but a nutrient table was not retrieved. Spice amounts in cooking are very small compared with the trial amounts. The seed gum and fibre content explains why large amounts cause gut effects.

20benefits and uses looked at

101studies and sources checked

Low certaintybest evidence rating found

23lab markers tracked in trials

1 mixed findings6 low certainty8 very low certainty4 not enough evidence1 evidence against

What was looked at

The 20 benefits and uses checked for Fenugreek, each with how strong the evidence is. Tap one to open it.

Type 2 diabetes: blood sugar and HbA1cLow certainty
Prediabetes: slowing the move to diabetesVery low certainty
Blood sugar after a meal: fenugreek added to foodLow certainty
Insulin resistance and insulin levelsMixed findings
Cholesterol and blood fatsLow certainty
Blood pressureVery low certainty
Weight loss (body weight and BMI)Evidence against
Fatty liver diseaseNot enough evidence
Type 1 diabetesNot enough evidence
Testosterone levels in menVery low certainty
Male libido and sexual wellbeingLow certainty
Women: sexual desire and arousalVery low certainty
Muscle strength and exerciseVery low certainty
Breast milk supplyVery low certainty
Painful periodsLow certainty
Menopause symptoms (hot flushes, night sweats, mood)Low certainty
Polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS)Very low certainty
Appetite, fullness and fat intakeVery low certainty
Prostate enlargement symptomsNot enough evidence
Alzheimer's disease and Parkinson's diseaseNot enough evidence

Lab markers tracked in the studies

Fasting blood glucoseHbA1c (average blood sugar over about 3 months)Two-hour glucose after a sugar drink or mealFasting insulin and HOMA-IRTotal cholesterolLDL cholesterolHDL cholesterolTriglyceridesSystolic blood pressure (top number)Diastolic blood pressure (bottom number)Body weight and BMIWaist circumferenceTotal testosterone (men)Free testosterone (men)Estradiol (women)ProlactinBreast milk volumePSA (prostate-specific antigen)Period pain score (0 to 10)Menopause symptom scores and hot flushesLean body mass, fat mass and leg pressLibido and sexual function scoresFullness and fat intake

What is Fenugreek good for?

The main proposed uses and how strong the human evidence is for each. "Low" means small or inconsistent studies, "very low" means a single small or unclear study or reviewers who rate certainty very low, "mixed" means studies disagree, "against" means studies found no benefit, and "insufficient" means there is not enough to judge. Fenugreek in cooking is fine; these results come from specific seed products and extracts, and may not apply to cooking amounts or to other products.

Benefits, one by one

Each card is a research question, not a promise. Tap a goal to filter. Open a card to see the studies, doses and limits.

Type 2 diabetes: blood sugar and HbA1c

Low certainty

Pooled analyses of small trials usually find that fenugreek seed products lower fasting blood sugar and HbA1c a little in people with type 2 diabetes. But the trials are small, short, of mixed quality and disagree a lot, and one 2023 analysis found no clear fall in fasting sugar. The US National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health says there is not enough high-quality evidence to say whether fenugreek helps diabetes.

14 studiesTrials used whole seed powder (about 2 to 25 g a day in the trials re…

Studies, doses and limits

What the trials found

Eight pooled analyses of randomized trials were read. Neelakantan 2014 (10 trials) found fasting glucose 0.96 mmol/l lower, 2-hour glucose 2.19 mmol/l lower and HbA1c 0.85 points lower, but with large disagreement and mostly low-quality trials; the effect was seen only at medium or high doses in people with diabetes. Gong 2016 (10 articles) and Kim 2023 (10 trials, 706 people) also found falls in fasting glucose, 2-hour glucose and HbA1c. Khodamoradi 2020 (12 articles) found fasting sugar 12.9 mg/dL lower and HbA1c 0.58 points lower. Correia 2023 and Kumar 2023 (network analysis) were also positive. Against that, Shabil 2023 (14 trials, 894 people) found HbA1c fell by 0.88 points but fasting and after-meal glucose did not clearly change. Suksomboon 2011 found HbA1c 1.13 points lower in a few trials with a very wide range. Single trials include an 8-week trial of whole seed powder (10 g a day) in 88 people with diabetes that reported falls in fasting glucose and HbA1c versus a starch placebo, a small trial of 9 finishers that found no clear fall in fasting glucose at 2 g a day, and a sponsor-linked 204-person trial that reported larger falls than drugs alone but is unclear on blinding.

Results

Most pooled analyses report modest falls in fasting glucose and HbA1c in people with type 2 diabetes. The size varies a lot between trials and the quality is mostly low.

Effect sizes as reported

Neelakantan 2014: fasting glucose -0.96 mmol/l (95% CI -1.52 to -0.40; I2 80%), 2-hour glucose -2.19 mmol/l, HbA1c -0.85 (-1.49 to -0.22). Khodamoradi 2020: fasting sugar -12.94 mg/dL, HbA1c -0.58 (-0.99 to -0.17). Shabil 2023: HbA1c -0.88 (-1.49 to -0.27); fasting glucose not clear.

Why this rating

Pooled analyses agree in direction, but the trials are small and mostly low quality, the preparations and amounts differ, disagreement between trials is high (I2 70 to 87% for glucose), and one analysis did not find a clear fasting-glucose fall. The reviewers themselves ask for better trials.

Form and dose studied

Trials used whole seed powder (about 2 to 25 g a day in the trials read), seed extracts (about 0.5 to 1 g a day) and food products. Results from one preparation cannot be carried over to another.

Who was studied

Adults with type 2 diabetes, many already on diabetes drugs; most trials in South Asia, Iran and the Middle East.

Limits

Small and short trials; low quality in most; different products; publication bias is possible; blood sugar numbers are not the same as fewer complications, which no trial measured.

Why researchers looked

Fenugreek seed is a traditional food and medicine for diabetes in South Asia, so many trials have tested it.

Traditional use

Used in South Asian and Middle Eastern cooking and traditional medicine, including for diabetes (Neelakantan 2014 abstract).

Proposed mechanism Laboratory research

Lab work shows an amino acid from the seed, 4-hydroxyisoleucine, makes isolated pancreatic islets from rats and humans release more insulin, but only when sugar is already high. The seed also holds a lot of gum fibre that may slow sugar uptake in the gut. These are lab and animal findings, not proven in people.

A proposed mechanism does not show that the effect happens in people.

Fenugreek can add to the blood-sugar-lowering effect of diabetes drugs (EMA advises monitoring). Mild stomach and gut upset is the main side effect in trials.

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Prediabetes: slowing the move to diabetes

Very low certainty

There are only a few trials in people with prediabetes. One 3-year trial reported fewer people moved on to diabetes on fenugreek, a 12-week extract trial lowered fasting and after-meal sugar, and a 6-month trial of a three-ingredient mix found no change. The best result comes from a trial without a proper placebo.

5 studiesWhole seed powder 10 g a day (Gaddam); a 500 mg a day extract (Picker…

Studies, doses and limits

What the trials found

Gaddam 2015 randomized 140 adults (66 fenugreek, 74 matched controls) for 3 years; the authors reported fewer conversions to diabetes (controls had 4.2 times the chance), with lower fasting and after-meal glucose and lower LDL. The control group does not appear to have taken a placebo. Pickering 2022 gave 54 people a specialised extract for 12 weeks versus placebo: fasting glucose, after-meal glucose and triglycerides differed, but HbA1c, insulin and C-peptide did not. Florentin 2019 (100 people, 6 months) tested a mix of fenugreek, olive leaf and bergamot and found no change in HbA1c, fasting glucose, insulin, HOMA-IR or lipids. The 2017 review of food plants for impaired glucose tolerance (Demmers) judged its fenugreek evidence low quality. Kiss 2018 reported better glucose tolerance after fenugreek in healthy volunteers, with no numbers in the abstract.

Results

Mixed: one open 3-year trial and one small extract trial were positive, one mixed-herb trial was null. None shows prevention of diabetes in a blinded trial.

Effect sizes as reported

Gaddam 2015: controls 4.2 times more likely to develop diabetes. Pickering 2022: fasting glucose p<0.001, after-meal glucose p=0.007, HbA1c p=0.41.

Why this rating

Three small trials point different ways, the longest is not placebo-controlled, and the null trial used a mixed product.

Form and dose studied

Whole seed powder 10 g a day (Gaddam); a 500 mg a day extract (Pickering); a three-ingredient mix (Florentin).

Who was studied

Adults with prediabetes.

Limits

Few trials; no blinded long-term trial; one trial tested a mixture; the diabetes-prevention result may not hold with a placebo.

Why researchers looked

People with prediabetes would like a way to prevent type 2 diabetes.

Traditional use

Same traditional use for diabetes as above.

Proposed mechanism Preliminary mechanism

Possible effects on insulin release and on slowing sugar absorption (laboratory and animal work); not shown to be the reason for benefit in people.

A proposed mechanism does not show that the effect happens in people.

Mild stomach and gut upset is the usual side effect; seek advice if you also take diabetes drugs.

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Blood sugar after a meal: fenugreek added to food

Low certainty

Adding fenugreek seed powder or flakes to bread or meals lowered the rise in blood sugar after the meal in small short trials in healthy people and in people with diabetes. These are very small tests of one or a few meals.

3 studiesFenugreek seed powder as 5% to 10% of flour in bread; 30 g a day of f…

Studies, doses and limits

What the trials found

Robert 2016: ten healthy adults ate buns and flatbreads with 10% of the flour replaced by fenugreek seed powder; the glycemic index of the buns fell from 82 to 51 and of the flatbread from 63 to 43. Losso 2009: eight people with diet-controlled diabetes ate bread with 5% fenugreek flour; insulin area under the curve was lower (p<0.05) but glucose area was not significantly lower. Deshpande 2025: 15 people with type 2 diabetes finished a crossover trial of 30 g a day of defatted fenugreek flakes for 14 days; 24-hour sugar rise (p=0.02) and glucose swings (p=0.006) were lower; three authors work for the sponsor. Sharma 1990 gave 100 g a day of defatted seed to people with type 1 diabetes for 10 days (see separate entry).

Results

Lower after-meal sugar rise with fenugreek-enriched foods in tiny trials; taste and food quality can suffer at higher amounts.

Effect sizes as reported

Robert 2016: glycemic index of buns 82 to 51 and flatbread 63 to 43 with 10% fenugreek. Deshpande 2025: 24-hour iAUC p=0.02.

Why this rating

Consistent direction in three small trials, but each had 8 to 21 people, tested a few meals or 14 days, and one is sponsor-linked.

Form and dose studied

Fenugreek seed powder as 5% to 10% of flour in bread; 30 g a day of flakes.

Who was studied

Healthy adults and adults with type 2 diabetes.

Limits

Very small; short; different foods; finger-prick blood samples in one trial; no long-term outcomes.

Why researchers looked

Fenugreek seed is rich in gum fibre, which thickens in the gut, so food makers have tried adding it to breads and flakes.

Traditional use

Fenugreek is eaten as a spice and as sprouted or ground seed in many cuisines.

Proposed mechanism Pharmacological theory

The gum fibre may slow digestion and absorption of sugar. Shown mainly in lab and food-science work; the human trials here did not test the mechanism.

A proposed mechanism does not show that the effect happens in people.

Fibre-rich products can cause wind or loose stools.

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Insulin resistance and insulin levels

Mixed findings

Results are mixed. Some trials reported lower insulin and better insulin resistance scores (HOMA-IR), and one pooled analysis found no clear fall in HOMA-IR. Other trials found insulin went up, not down.

7 studiesWhole seed 10 g a day; extracts about 0.5 to 1 g a day; fibre 4 to 8 …

Studies, doses and limits

What the trials found

Kim 2023 pooled 10 trials and found no significant fall in HOMA-IR. Rafraf 2014 (88 people with type 2 diabetes, 10 g a day of whole seed for 8 weeks) reported lower insulin (p=0.03) and HOMA-IR (p=0.004) and higher adiponectin. Gupta 2001 (25 people, 1 g a day of extract) reported lower insulin area under the curve and better insulin sensitivity. Hota 2024 reported insulin lower by over 10% on a branded extract (unclear blinding). Najdi 2019 (9 finishers) saw insulin rise (p=0.04). Pickering 2022 found no change in fasting insulin (p=0.12). Mathern 2009 found an 8 g fibre dose raised the insulin response after a breakfast in obese adults.

Results

Mixed direction between trials; a pooled analysis found no clear fall in HOMA-IR.

Effect sizes as reported

Rafraf 2014: HOMA-IR p=0.004. Kim 2023: HOMA-IR not significant.

Why this rating

Trials disagree on whether insulin goes up or down, and the pooled result for HOMA-IR is null.

Form and dose studied

Whole seed 10 g a day; extracts about 0.5 to 1 g a day; fibre 4 to 8 g in one meal.

Who was studied

Adults with type 2 diabetes or prediabetes, healthy adults.

Limits

Different products, small samples, insulin is a lab marker rather than a symptom.

Why researchers looked

Insulin resistance underlies type 2 diabetes and many studies measure it.

Proposed mechanism Preliminary mechanism

In lab work an amino acid from the seed raises insulin release when sugar is high; effects on insulin resistance in people are unproven.

A proposed mechanism does not show that the effect happens in people.

None specific beyond the general safety section.

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Cholesterol and blood fats

Low certainty

Pooled trials found small average falls in total cholesterol, LDL and triglycerides and a small rise in HDL after fenugreek seed products. The results come from small mixed-quality trials, many in people with diabetes, and the pooled results do not all agree.

10 studiesWhole seed or extract; amounts differ widely between trials.

Studies, doses and limits

What the trials found

Askarpour 2020 pooled 12 trials (560 people): total cholesterol -9.4 mg/dL, triglycerides -13.8 mg/dL, LDL -6.6 mg/dL, HDL +3.5 mg/dL; the LDL and triglyceride intervals came close to zero. Heshmat-Ghahdarijani 2020 pooled 15 trials and found falls in total cholesterol, LDL and triglycerides and a rise in HDL (units not stated in the abstract). Khodamoradi 2020: total cholesterol -9.1 mg/dL and LDL -11.1 mg/dL, no change in other measures. Gong 2016 found total cholesterol lower but triglycerides, LDL and HDL not clearly changed. Kim 2023 found total cholesterol, triglycerides and HDL improved but LDL did not. Fakhr 2023 (29 trials): triglycerides -20.1 mg/dL and HDL +3.6 mg/dL. Single trials: Pickering 2022 (triglycerides lower, total cholesterol/LDL/HDL not); Florentin 2019 (mixed product, no change); Geberemeskel 2019 (25 g twice a day for a month; large falls versus a metformin group). Rafraf 2014: total cholesterol and triglycerides lower, LDL and HDL not.

Results

Small average improvements in total cholesterol, triglycerides, and in some analyses LDL and HDL; analyses disagree on which markers move.

Effect sizes as reported

Askarpour 2020: TC -9.4 mg/dL, TG -13.8, LDL -6.6, HDL +3.5. Fakhr 2023: TG -20.12 mg/dL (-34.24 to -5.99), HDL +3.55 mg/dL.

Why this rating

Direction is mostly consistent across pooled analyses, but the effects are small, analyses disagree about LDL and triglycerides, trials are small and mostly low quality, and reviewers say trials in people with high blood fats are needed. No trial measured heart attacks or strokes.

Form and dose studied

Whole seed or extract; amounts differ widely between trials.

Who was studied

Mostly adults with type 2 diabetes or metabolic problems.

Limits

Mixed populations; short; results are blood tests, not heart outcomes.

Why researchers looked

Fenugreek is eaten as a fibre-rich seed that may bind bile acids, and trials often measured blood fats alongside blood sugar.

Traditional use

Used traditionally as a general tonic; claims about cholesterol come from modern study.

Proposed mechanism Animal research

Gum fibre may bind bile acids in the gut and the saponins may reduce cholesterol uptake. Shown in animals and lab work, not proven in people.

A proposed mechanism does not show that the effect happens in people.

No extra safety concerns beyond the general safety section.

^{8 37 45 31 46 25 67 26 30 69}

Blood pressure

Very low certainty

Pooled trials found a small average fall in the top (systolic) blood pressure number of roughly 3 to 3.5 mmHg, and no clear fall in the bottom number. That is much smaller than a blood pressure pill.

3 studiesSeed amounts of 15 g a day or more in the subgroup that looked best (…

Studies, doses and limits

What the trials found

Amini 2023 pooled 6 trials (373 people) and found systolic pressure about 3.5 mmHg lower (CI -6.33 to -0.59) and diastolic pressure not clearly changed. Fakhr 2023 (29 trials) found systolic pressure 3.45 mmHg lower (CI -6.38 to -0.52) and diastolic pressure not significantly changed. Hadi 2020 (50 people with type 2 diabetes, 15 g a day for 8 weeks) saw a fall in systolic pressure within the fenugreek group.

Results

A small average fall in systolic pressure. No convincing fall in diastolic.

Effect sizes as reported

Fakhr 2023: SBP -3.45 mmHg (-6.38 to -0.52); DBP not significant. Amini 2023: SBP about -3.5 mmHg.

Why this rating

The effect is small, the intervals come close to zero, few trials measured pressure carefully, and the amounts and durations vary. One pooled analysis printed its sign inconsistently in the abstract.

Form and dose studied

Seed amounts of 15 g a day or more in the subgroup that looked best (Amini 2023).

Who was studied

Adults, often with diabetes or metabolic problems.

Limits

Only 6 trials in one analysis; blood pressure not the main aim of most trials.

Why researchers looked

Blood pressure was measured in trials of people with metabolic problems.

Proposed mechanism Preliminary mechanism

No clear mechanism has been shown in people.

A proposed mechanism does not show that the effect happens in people.

People on blood pressure drugs should not stop them. Fenugreek has not been tested as a blood pressure treatment.

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Weight loss (body weight and BMI)

Evidence against

Pooled analyses found no change in body weight or BMI after fenugreek. Waist size was a little smaller in one analysis. Fenugreek has not been shown to help people lose weight.

3 studiesVarious.

Studies, doses and limits

What the trials found

Askarpour 2020 (12 trials): body weight +0.22 kg (CI -0.51 to 0.96) and BMI +0.09 (CI -0.24 to 0.43), no change. Fakhr 2023 (29 trials): BMI -0.40 kg/m2 (CI -1.11 to 0.32), not significant; waist circumference 2.5 units smaller (CI -3.78 to -1.24). Kim 2023: BMI did not change. Hadi and Pickering found no weight changes in their trials.

Results

No effect on body weight or BMI; a small fall in waist size in one analysis.

Effect sizes as reported

Askarpour 2020: weight +0.223 kg (-0.509 to 0.955); BMI +0.091 (-0.244 to 0.426). Fakhr 2023: waist -2.51 (-3.78 to -1.24).

Why this rating

Three pooled analyses found no change in weight or BMI.

Form and dose studied

Various.

Who was studied

Adults.

Limits

Waist result from one analysis only; follow-up short.

Why researchers looked

Fenugreek fibre may make people feel full, so weight was tested.

Traditional use

Sometimes marketed for weight loss.

Proposed mechanism Pharmacological theory

Fibre may increase fullness; see the appetite entry for the small trials.

A proposed mechanism does not show that the effect happens in people.

Do not use fenugreek for weight loss in place of medical care.

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Fatty liver disease

Not enough evidence

One small pilot trial of 30 people found no difference from placebo. That is the only trial read, so there is not enough evidence.

1 studies1 g a day of a hydroalcoholic seed extract.

Studies, doses and limits

What the trials found

Babaei 2020 randomized 30 adults with fatty liver disease (24 finished) to 1 g a day of seed extract or placebo for 3 months. Changes in ALT, scan scores, liver stiffness and weight did not differ between the groups. A 2026 network meta-analysis of plant extracts for fatty liver exists in PubMed but was not read.

Results

No benefit detected in one small pilot trial.

Effect sizes as reported

No significant differences.

Why this rating

One pilot trial with 30 people could miss a modest effect.

Form and dose studied

1 g a day of a hydroalcoholic seed extract.

Who was studied

Adults with fatty liver disease.

Limits

Tiny sample; short.

Why researchers looked

Fatty liver is linked to diabetes and high cholesterol, which fenugreek has been tested in.

Proposed mechanism Preliminary mechanism

No mechanism shown in people.

A proposed mechanism does not show that the effect happens in people.

No liver harm was seen in this trial. See the liver section of the safety file.

¹⁰

Type 1 diabetes

Not enough evidence

The only trial read is a small 1990 study using a very large food-level amount of defatted seed for 10 days. It reported lower blood sugar and cholesterol. This is too little evidence, and fenugreek must never replace insulin.

1 studies100 g of defatted seed powder a day, split into two meals (this is fa…

Studies, doses and limits

What the trials found

Sharma 1990 gave people with insulin-dependent (type 1) diabetes isocaloric diets with and without 100 g a day of defatted fenugreek seed powder for 10 days each, in random order. The abstract reports lower fasting blood sugar, better glucose tolerance, 54% less sugar lost in the urine over 24 hours, and lower total, LDL and VLDL cholesterol and triglycerides; HDL did not change. The number of people is not stated.

Results

Reported improvement in a short 1990 trial; no newer trial was found.

Effect sizes as reported

24-hour urine glucose down 54%.

Why this rating

One old short trial of unstated size with a very large amount of seed.

Form and dose studied

100 g of defatted seed powder a day, split into two meals (this is far above normal food use).

Who was studied

People with type 1 diabetes.

Limits

Old, small, short; the dose is a very large food amount.

Why researchers looked

Early research tested fenugreek in people who need insulin.

Traditional use

Traditional use for diabetes in general.

Proposed mechanism Preliminary mechanism

No mechanism shown in people.

A proposed mechanism does not show that the effect happens in people.

People who use insulin could have low blood sugar if they change their diet or add fenugreek; talk to a doctor first.

⁸⁰

Testosterone levels in men

Very low certainty

Pooled analyses find a small average rise in total testosterone with fenugreek extracts, but the best 2026 analysis rates the evidence very low in certainty, found no clear change in free testosterone, and says it does not support testosterone-boosting claims. Several trials were small or run by the product makers.

9 studiesBranded seed extracts (for example Testofen, Furosap, Fenu-FG, Trigoz…

Studies, doses and limits

What the trials found

Yang 2026 (13 randomized placebo-controlled trials; 6 in the total-testosterone analysis) found a small favourable effect on total testosterone (SMD 0.25, CI 0.02 to 0.48, I2 0%) and no clear effect on free testosterone (SMD 0.08, CI -0.48 to 0.63, I2 66.7%); none of the 13 trials was low risk of bias and certainty was very low (GRADE). Mansoori 2020 (4 trials) reported a significant effect on total testosterone with no numbers in the abstract. Isenmann 2023 (7 studies, 449 people, mostly male athletes) found total testosterone SMD 0.32 (CI 0.09 to 0.55) and free testosterone SMD 0.24 (CI -0.04 to 0.52). Smith 2021 (32 herb trials in men) named fenugreek seed extracts and ashwagandha as having positive effects, and noted only 6 of 32 studies had low risk of bias. Individual trials: Lee-Ødegård 2024 (95 men aged 40 to 80, 12 weeks, extract with essential nutrients) found blood total testosterone up 9.0% versus placebo (not significant) but saliva testosterone up 37.2% versus placebo (p=0.042); that trial was run by its funder. Wankhede 2016 (60 men, 8 weeks of resistance training) reported higher testosterone on a glycoside fraction. Rao 2020 (100 men with prostate enlargement) found hormones unchanged. Furosap studies (50 and 100 men, open-label, no control group) reported testosterone rises but cannot show cause; their authors are linked to the extract developer.

Results

A small average rise in total testosterone in healthy or recreationally active men; free testosterone not clearly changed.

Effect sizes as reported

Yang 2026: total T SMD 0.25 (0.02 to 0.48); free T SMD 0.08 (-0.48 to 0.63). Isenmann 2023: total T SMD 0.32 (0.09 to 0.55).

Why this rating

The reviewers of the newest analysis rate it very low certainty; none of 13 trials was low risk of bias; many trials are of branded extracts and some are sponsored or open-label.

Form and dose studied

Branded seed extracts (for example Testofen, Furosap, Fenu-FG, Trigozim), about 300 to 1,800 mg a day in the trials read. Not comparable between products.

Who was studied

Mostly healthy younger or middle-aged men; few men with confirmed low testosterone.

Limits

Small trials, product-linked authors, free testosterone unclear, no trial of men with low testosterone and symptoms.

Why researchers looked

Fenugreek saponins such as protodioscin and diosgenin are marketed as testosterone supports, so many branded extracts were tested.

Traditional use

Fenugreek is used in traditional medicine for male and female reproductive health (a narrative review, Sun 2021).

Proposed mechanism Pharmacological theory

The proposed idea is that saponins affect the enzymes that break down testosterone or its conversion. The EMA draft notes only animal reproductive toxicity. No mechanism has been shown in men.

A proposed mechanism does not show that the effect happens in people.

Case reports of lung blood clots in men taking fenugreek-containing testosterone supplements exist (see safety file); cause is unproven.

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Male libido and sexual wellbeing

Low certainty

Two small placebo-controlled trials in healthy men reported better libido scores or "aging male" symptom scores. Open-label studies reported better sexual health but cannot show cause. The newest analysis says current evidence does not support testosterone-boosting or sexual claims.

5 studiesTestofen 600 mg a day; seed extract 400 or 500 mg a day.

Studies, doses and limits

What the trials found

Steels 2011 randomized 60 healthy men aged 25 to 52 (no erectile dysfunction) to Testofen (fenugreek extract plus minerals; 600 mg a day) or placebo for 6 weeks: sexual arousal and orgasm scores improved, mood and sleep did not, and testosterone and prolactin stayed in range. Hausenblas 2020 (57 healthy young men, 400 or 500 mg a day for 60 days) reported better aging-male symptoms, anxiety, grip strength and quality of life; the abstract gives no numbers. Maheshwari 2017 and Sankhwar 2023 (open-label, no control group, extract developer-linked) reported improved libido and sexual health. Yang 2026 descriptively summarised sexual function across trials and concluded the evidence does not support commercial claims.

Results

Reported improvements in libido questionnaires in two small trials of healthy men.

Effect sizes as reported

Steels 2011: sexual arousal and orgasm domains significantly higher than placebo (numbers not in abstract).

Why this rating

Two placebo-controlled trials point the same way, but both are small, short, in healthy men and use branded extracts; open-label studies add little.

Form and dose studied

Testofen 600 mg a day; seed extract 400 or 500 mg a day.

Who was studied

Healthy men, ages 25 to 52 in the placebo trials.

Limits

Healthy volunteers, not men with sexual problems; no numbers in abstracts; self-reported scores.

Why researchers looked

Fenugreek is sold for male vitality.

Traditional use

Traditional use for reproductive health.

Proposed mechanism Pharmacological theory

Unknown. The idea that it works through testosterone is not confirmed.

A proposed mechanism does not show that the effect happens in people.

See safety file for hormone-sensitive conditions and blood clots.

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Women: sexual desire and arousal

Very low certainty

One 8-week placebo-controlled trial of 80 healthy women with low sexual drive reported higher desire and arousal scores and a rise in free testosterone and estradiol. No other trial was found.

1 studiesLibifem 600 mg a day for 8 weeks.

Studies, doses and limits

What the trials found

Rao 2015 randomized 80 healthy menstruating women aged 20 to 49 with low sexual drive to 600 mg a day of the extract Libifem or placebo for two menstrual cycles. Free testosterone and estradiol rose, and sexual desire and arousal were higher than with placebo.

Results

Higher desire and arousal scores in one trial; changes in sex hormones.

Effect sizes as reported

Significant increases in free testosterone, estradiol, desire and arousal (numbers not in abstract).

Why this rating

One small trial of a branded extract; no replication.

Form and dose studied

Libifem 600 mg a day for 8 weeks.

Who was studied

Healthy menstruating women aged 20 to 49 reporting low sexual drive.

Limits

Single site; short; abstract gives no numbers. A rise in estradiol and testosterone is a hormone effect.

Why researchers looked

Fenugreek extract was tested for effects on sex hormones in women.

Traditional use

Traditional use for female reproductive health.

Proposed mechanism Preliminary mechanism

Unknown; the hormone changes seen in this trial are not a proven reason for the benefit.

A proposed mechanism does not show that the effect happens in people.

Hormone changes mean women with hormone-sensitive conditions should ask a doctor first.

⁷⁰

Muscle strength and exercise

Very low certainty

Small studies, mainly in male athletes, hint at slightly better strength and body composition, but most of the measures were not statistically clear in the pooled analysis.

4 studiesSeed extracts and glycoside fractions (about 600 mg a day in the tria…

Studies, doses and limits

What the trials found

Isenmann 2023 pooled 7 studies (449 people, 378 men): lean body mass SMD 0.19 (CI -0.10 to 0.49), fat mass SMD -0.19 (CI -0.44 to 0.05) and leg press SMD 0.22 (CI -0.02 to 0.47), all with intervals that include zero. Albaker 2023 reviewed 6 trials: four reported better strength, endurance, lean mass or body fat, two small trials (under 10 people) were weak. Wankhede 2016 (60 men, 8 weeks of resistance training) reported better body fat without loss of strength. Hausenblas 2020 reported better grip strength in healthy men.

Results

Small hints of benefit not confirmed by pooled intervals.

Effect sizes as reported

Isenmann 2023: lean mass SMD 0.19 (-0.10 to 0.49); leg press 0.22 (-0.02 to 0.47).

Why this rating

Intervals include zero for strength and body composition; trials small and short; branded extracts.

Form and dose studied

Seed extracts and glycoside fractions (about 600 mg a day in the trial read in more detail).

Who was studied

Mostly young male recreational athletes.

Limits

Few women; sponsor ties; short; The review of Albaker notes doping and kidney or liver concerns need awareness.

Why researchers looked

Fenugreek glycosides are marketed to athletes.

Proposed mechanism Pharmacological theory

Possible hormone effect (unproven).

A proposed mechanism does not show that the effect happens in people.

See safety file.

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Breast milk supply

Very low certainty

Fenugreek is widely used by breastfeeding mothers to boost milk, but the evidence is very uncertain. A Cochrane review rated the evidence low to very low, small trials of fenugreek tea or capsules reported more milk, and a trial of cookies found no effect. LactMed notes the effect may be mostly psychological and that safety data are limited.

9 studiesTea, capsules (500 mg three times a day in one trial), mixtures and c…

Studies, doses and limits

What the trials found

The Cochrane review (Foong 2020; 41 trials, 3,005 mothers) found natural galactagogues including fenugreek too varied to pool; certainty low to very low; it is very uncertain whether fenugreek improves infant weight. Khan 2018 (network analysis, 5 studies, 122 women on fenugreek) found more milk than placebo but less than Coleus amboinicus and palm date. Mortel 2013 (6 trials of herbs) made no recommendation to use herbs. Trials: Turkyilmaz 2011 (66 mothers, herbal tea containing fenugreek) found more milk on day 3 and quicker regain of birth weight. Rouhi 2025 (68 mothers of preterm babies, 500 mg three times a day) found more milk on day 7 but no difference by day 15 and no change in prolactin. Bumrungpert 2018 (50 mothers, fenugreek-ginger-turmeric mixture) found milk volume up 49% at week 2 and 103% at week 4. Palacios 2023 (176 parents, cookies with fenugreek and other ingredients) found no effect. Wagner 2019 (60 mothers) tested the safety of a multi-herb tea and found no adverse effects attributable to it.

Results

Some small trials show more milk; the best-quality review rates the evidence very uncertain; one trial with food-type use found no effect.

Effect sizes as reported

Khan 2018 (network analysis): fenugreek versus placebo 11.11 (CI 6.77 to 15.46; units not given). Palacios 2023: milk production difference -0.33 mL/h (not significant).

Why this rating

Cochrane rates certainty low to very low; trials are small, short, often combine herbs and measure milk in different ways.

Form and dose studied

Tea, capsules (500 mg three times a day in one trial), mixtures and cookies.

Who was studied

Breastfeeding mothers, including mothers of preterm babies.

Limits

Mixed products; short follow-up; effect on infant growth unclear.

Why researchers looked

Fenugreek is one of the most common traditional milk boosters worldwide.

Traditional use

Used in many regions to increase milk supply (LactMed).

Proposed mechanism Preliminary mechanism

Proposed effects on insulin, prolactin and oxytocin are reported in some studies but are not established; LactMed says the effect may be mostly psychological.

A proposed mechanism does not show that the effect happens in people.

Maple-syrup odour of urine and sweat in mother and baby, rare severe skin and allergy reactions, and low-sugar concerns; infants: see safety file.

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Painful periods

Low certainty

Small trials found less period pain than placebo and about the same relief as a standard painkiller, but the pooled evidence is rated low quality and "highly uncertain".

4 studiesSeed powder capsules taken in the first days of the period (900 mg ca…

Studies, doses and limits

What the trials found

Hassanzadeh 2024 (4 trials) found pain lower than placebo (SMD -2.21, CI -3.26 to -1.17) and no difference from mefenamic acid; GRADE low quality, effect "highly uncertain". The Cochrane review (Pattanittum 2016; 27 trials of supplements) judged all evidence low or very low; for fenugreek one trial of 101 women gave very limited evidence (-1.71 points on a 0 to 10 scale, CI -2.35 to -1.07). Younesy 2014 (101 students, 900 mg capsules, 2 to 3 three times a day for the first three days of the period, 2 cycles) found larger pain reduction than placebo (p<0.001). Inanmdar 2016 (60 women, open-label) found pain down about 66.9% with 3 g twice a day, 66.5% with cupping added and 62.9% with mefenamic acid.

Results

Less period pain than placebo in small trials; similar to mefenamic acid in two comparisons.

Effect sizes as reported

Hassanzadeh 2024: SMD -2.21 (-3.26 to -1.17) versus placebo. Cochrane: -1.71 points (-2.35 to -1.07), one trial.

Why this rating

GRADE low in the 2024 analysis; Cochrane very limited; students in Iran and India; the open trial had no placebo.

Form and dose studied

Seed powder capsules taken in the first days of the period (900 mg capsules, or 3 g twice a day, in the trials).

Who was studied

Young women with primary period pain.

Limits

Few trials; one-country; open-label trial included.

Why researchers looked

Fenugreek seed is a traditional remedy for period pain.

Traditional use

Traditional use in Iranian and Unani medicine (the trials come from these traditions).

Proposed mechanism Preliminary mechanism

Possible anti-inflammatory action (lab and animal ideas only).

A proposed mechanism does not show that the effect happens in people.

Not for use in pregnancy (see safety file). Pain that is severe or new needs a doctor.

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Menopause symptoms (hot flushes, night sweats, mood)

Low certainty

Three small placebo-controlled trials of branded extracts in women around menopause reported fewer hot flushes and night sweats and better scores for mood and quality of life. Two of them also saw rises in estradiol. None has been replicated by an independent team.

4 studiesExtracts of 250 to 1,000 mg a day for 6 to 13 weeks.

Studies, doses and limits

What the trials found

Steels 2017 (115 women aged 40 to 65, 600 mg a day de-husked seed extract, 12 weeks) found better total menopause quality-of-life scores and fewer hot flushes and night sweats than placebo; estradiol did not differ. Begum 2016 (88 women, 1000 mg a day husk extract, 90 days) found plasma estradiol up 120% and better symptoms; 32% reported no hot flashes afterwards. Khanna 2020 (48 women, 250 mg twice a day, 42 days) reported hot flashes down 25.9%, night sweats 26.5%, depression 31.8%, insomnia 21.6%, with estradiol up 18.9% and FSH down 38.2%. Safary 2020 (60 postmenopausal women) found a fenugreek vaginal cream improved signs of vaginal thinning but less than a low-dose estrogen cream.

Results

Fewer hot flushes and better symptom scores than placebo in three small trials of three different branded extracts.

Effect sizes as reported

Khanna 2020: hot flashes -25.9%, night sweats -26.5% (within the extract group, 6 weeks). Begum 2016: estradiol +120%.

Why this rating

Consistent direction in three placebo-controlled trials, but each has 24 to 59 per group, a different extract, short duration and no independent replication.

Form and dose studied

Extracts of 250 to 1,000 mg a day for 6 to 13 weeks.

Who was studied

Women with menopause symptoms.

Limits

Different products; self-reported scores; a big rise in estradiol in one trial is itself a safety question.

Why researchers looked

Fenugreek extracts are marketed for women in menopause.

Traditional use

Traditional use for female hormone health.

Proposed mechanism Preliminary mechanism

Some trials report changes in estradiol, testosterone, FSH and SHBG; the clinical meaning is unclear.

A proposed mechanism does not show that the effect happens in people.

Women with breast or other hormone-sensitive cancers or conditions should ask their doctor before using fenugreek extracts.

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Polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS)

Very low certainty

Studies of one patented extract (Furocyst) reported smaller ovarian cysts and more regular periods, but two of the three studies had no placebo group and all are from the product developers.

3 studiesFurocyst 1000 mg a day for 90 days or 12 weeks.

Studies, doses and limits

What the trials found

Swaroop 2015 (50 women, open-label, no control, 90 days) reported smaller ovary volume, cysts shrinking in about 46% and 71% reporting regular cycles. Sankhwar 2023 (107 women, single group, 12 weeks) reported over 40% smaller cysts. Singh 2023 (208 women, double-blind versus placebo) reported fewer cysts, smaller ovaries, less hirsutism and lower free testosterone; the abstract gives no numbers.

Results

Reported improvement in cysts, hormones and periods from one product.

Effect sizes as reported

Swaroop 2015: 71% reported return of regular cycle; no control group.

Why this rating

One branded extract, trials from the developer group, two without a control group, abstract of the randomized trial gives no numbers.

Form and dose studied

Furocyst 1000 mg a day for 90 days or 12 weeks.

Who was studied

Premenopausal women with PCOS.

Limits

No independent trial; not compared with standard PCOS care.

Why researchers looked

A branded fenugreek extract was developed for PCOS.

Proposed mechanism Preliminary mechanism

Unknown.

A proposed mechanism does not show that the effect happens in people.

PCOS needs medical care; do not replace treatment.

^{87 81 76}

Appetite, fullness and fat intake

Very low certainty

Tiny short trials suggest fenugreek fibre may make people feel fuller and a seed extract may slightly lower the fat people eat, but weight did not change.

3 studiesIsolated fibre 4 to 8 g in one meal; extract 588 to 1176 mg a day.

Studies, doses and limits

What the trials found

Mathern 2009 (18 obese adults, crossover) found 8 g of isolated fenugreek fibre increased fullness and lowered hunger after breakfast; lunch intake was lower than after 4 g but not significantly lower than control; taste ratings fell as the fibre dose rose. Chevassus 2009 (12 healthy men, 588 or 1176 mg a day, crossover) found the higher dose cut daily fat intake by 17.3% (p=0.038). Chevassus 2010 (39 overweight men, 6 weeks) found a slight fall in fat intake relative to energy expenditure (0.26 vs 0.30, p=0.032) but no effect on weight or appetite scores. Note the EMA monograph lists temporary loss of appetite as a traditional use for fenugreek, the opposite direction, so the effect on appetite is unclear.

Results

Small short-term effects on fullness and fat intake; weight unchanged.

Effect sizes as reported

Chevassus 2009: fat intake -17.3% (CI for MJ/day difference -1.51 to -0.05).

Why this rating

Three tiny trials, men only, short; appetite findings conflict with traditional appetite-stimulating use.

Form and dose studied

Isolated fibre 4 to 8 g in one meal; extract 588 to 1176 mg a day.

Who was studied

Obese adults, healthy and overweight men.

Limits

Tiny, short, men only.

Why researchers looked

The seed fibre swells and may fill the stomach.

Traditional use

Fenugreek is eaten as a spice and is also taken to stimulate appetite (the EMA monograph lists traditional use for temporary loss of appetite).

Proposed mechanism Pharmacological theory

Fibre may slow stomach emptying; extracts may change eating behaviour; mostly animal and theoretical.

A proposed mechanism does not show that the effect happens in people.

Fibre can cause wind and loose stools.

^{55 18 19}

Prostate enlargement symptoms

Not enough evidence

One 12-week placebo-controlled trial of 100 men with prostate enlargement symptoms found no improvement.

1 studies600 mg a day extract.

Studies, doses and limits

What the trials found

Rao 2020 randomized 100 men aged 45 to 80 with prostate symptoms (score of at least 8) to 600 mg a day of a standardised extract or placebo for 12 weeks: symptoms did not improve, and hormones, PSA and safety markers stayed unchanged.

Results

No benefit for prostate symptoms.

Effect sizes as reported

No effect on International Prostate Symptom Score.

Why this rating

One trial, null result.

Form and dose studied

600 mg a day extract.

Who was studied

Men with benign prostate enlargement.

Limits

One trial.

Why researchers looked

Fenugreek extract was tested in men with benign prostate enlargement.

Proposed mechanism Preliminary mechanism

None shown.

A proposed mechanism does not show that the effect happens in people.

PSA stayed unchanged in this trial.

⁷¹

Alzheimer's disease and Parkinson's disease

Not enough evidence

Two small trials in Iran and India reported better memory scores in Alzheimer's disease and slower worsening of Parkinson's scores. The reports are preliminary: one compared with the group's own start instead of with placebo, and neither has been repeated.

2 studies5 cc extract daily (Alzheimer's trial); 300 mg twice a day (Parkinson…

Studies, doses and limits

What the trials found

Foroumandi 2023 (82 people with mild to moderate Alzheimer's in care homes, 5 cc of seed extract for 4 months versus placebo) reported higher memory and quality-of-life scores, lower depression and blood pressure, and better antioxidant markers compared with their own baselines. Nathan 2014 (50 people with Parkinson's on L-dopa, 300 mg of extract twice a day for 6 months versus placebo) reported a slower rise in total UPDRS score (0.098% vs 13.36%) and good safety.

Results

Reported benefits in two preliminary trials.

Effect sizes as reported

Nathan 2014: UPDRS rose 0.098% (extract) vs 13.36% (placebo).

Why this rating

Two small trials of different extracts, one with within-group comparisons; no replication.

Form and dose studied

5 cc extract daily (Alzheimer's trial); 300 mg twice a day (Parkinson's trial).

Who was studied

People with Alzheimer's or Parkinson's.

Limits

Preliminary; do not substitute for medicines.

Why researchers looked

Fenugreek has antioxidant compounds studied in brain-disease models.

Proposed mechanism Animal research

Mostly animal and lab ideas (antioxidant action, trigonelline); not proven in people.

A proposed mechanism does not show that the effect happens in people.

Tell the medical team about any herb used with Parkinson's or dementia drugs.

^{28 60}

Connections to the rest of health

How Fenugreek connects to the rest of our health knowledge graph. Every link says what kind of connection it is. A safety link (for example to the liver) is a warning, not a benefit. A study that merely mentions a topic never creates a benefit link.

Explore every connection: goals, body systems, organs, symptoms, genes

Kind of connection Connected to Search

A. Wellness goals

Connected to	Kind of connection	Evidence status	Context	Studies
Blood Sugar Balance	Potential benefit	Low certainty	Type 2 diabetes: blood sugar and HbA1c: Pooled analyses of small trials usually find that fenugreek seed products lower fasting blood sugar and HbA1c a little in people with type 2 diabetes. But the trials are small, short, of mixed quality and disagree a lot, and one 2023 analysis found no clear fall in fasting sugar. The US National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health says there is not enough high-quality evidence to say whether fenugreek helps diabetes. Prediabetes: slowing the move to diabetes: There are only a few trials in people with prediabetes. One 3-year trial reported fewer people moved on to diabetes on fenugreek, a 12-week extract trial lowered fasting and after-meal sugar, and a 6-month trial of a three-ingredient mix found no change. The best result comes from a trial without a proper placebo.	^{61 31 46 78 20 49 85 45 69 33 59 38 32 25 29 67 26 21 47 72 52 22 80}
Metabolic Health	Potential benefit	Low certainty	Type 2 diabetes: blood sugar and HbA1c: Pooled analyses of small trials usually find that fenugreek seed products lower fasting blood sugar and HbA1c a little in people with type 2 diabetes. But the trials are small, short, of mixed quality and disagree a lot, and one 2023 analysis found no clear fall in fasting sugar. The US National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health says there is not enough high-quality evidence to say whether fenugreek helps diabetes. Prediabetes: slowing the move to diabetes: There are only a few trials in people with prediabetes. One 3-year trial reported fewer people moved on to diabetes on fenugreek, a 12-week extract trial lowered fasting and after-meal sugar, and a 6-month trial of a three-ingredient mix found no change. The best result comes from a trial without a proper placebo.	^{61 31 46 78 20 49 85 45 69 33 59 38 32 25 29 67 26 21 47 8 10}
Blood Sugar Balance	Preliminary mechanism	Mixed findings	Insulin resistance and insulin levels: Results are mixed. Some trials reported lower insulin and better insulin resistance scores (HOMA-IR), and one pooled analysis found no clear fall in HOMA-IR. Other trials found insulin went up, not down.	^{46 69 32 38 59 67 55}
Metabolic Health	Preliminary mechanism	Mixed findings	Insulin resistance and insulin levels: Results are mixed. Some trials reported lower insulin and better insulin resistance scores (HOMA-IR), and one pooled analysis found no clear fall in HOMA-IR. Other trials found insulin went up, not down.	^{46 69 32 38 59 67 55}
Cholesterol Balance	Potential benefit	Low certainty	Cholesterol and blood fats: Pooled trials found small average falls in total cholesterol, LDL and triglycerides and a small rise in HDL after fenugreek seed products. The results come from small mixed-quality trials, many in people with diabetes, and the pooled results do not all agree.	^{8 37 45 31 46 25 67 26 30 69}
Heart Health	Potential benefit	Low certainty	Cholesterol and blood fats: Pooled trials found small average falls in total cholesterol, LDL and triglycerides and a small rise in HDL after fenugreek seed products. The results come from small mixed-quality trials, many in people with diabetes, and the pooled results do not all agree. Blood pressure: Pooled trials found a small average fall in the top (systolic) blood pressure number of roughly 3 to 3.5 mmHg, and no clear fall in the bottom number. That is much smaller than a blood pressure pill.	^{8 37 45 31 46 25 67 26 30 69 6 33}
Blood Pressure Support	Potential benefit	Very low certainty	Blood pressure: Pooled trials found a small average fall in the top (systolic) blood pressure number of roughly 3 to 3.5 mmHg, and no clear fall in the bottom number. That is much smaller than a blood pressure pill.	^{6 25 33}
Weight Management	Potential benefit	Evidence against	Weight loss (body weight and BMI): Pooled analyses found no change in body weight or BMI after fenugreek. Waist size was a little smaller in one analysis. Fenugreek has not been shown to help people lose weight. Appetite, fullness and fat intake: Tiny short trials suggest fenugreek fibre may make people feel fuller and a seed extract may slightly lower the fat people eat, but weight did not change.	^{8 25 46 55 18 19}
Liver Support	Potential benefit	Not enough evidence	Fatty liver disease: One small pilot trial of 30 people found no difference from placebo. That is the only trial read, so there is not enough evidence.	¹⁰
Mens Vitality	Potential benefit	Very low certainty	Testosterone levels in men: Pooled analyses find a small average rise in total testosterone with fenugreek extracts, but the best 2026 analysis rates the evidence very low in certainty, found no clear change in free testosterone, and says it does not support testosterone-boosting claims. Several trials were small or run by the product makers. Male libido and sexual wellbeing: Two small placebo-controlled trials in healthy men reported better libido scores or "aging male" symptom scores. Open-label studies reported better sexual health but cannot show cause. The newest analysis says current evidence does not support testosterone-boosting or sexual claims.	^{92 54 40 82 51 90 71 53 75 83 35}
Hormone Balance	Potential benefit	Very low certainty	Testosterone levels in men: Pooled analyses find a small average rise in total testosterone with fenugreek extracts, but the best 2026 analysis rates the evidence very low in certainty, found no clear change in free testosterone, and says it does not support testosterone-boosting claims. Several trials were small or run by the product makers. Polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS): Studies of one patented extract (Furocyst) reported smaller ovarian cysts and more regular periods, but two of the three studies had no placebo group and all are from the product developers.	^{92 54 40 82 51 90 71 53 75 87 81 76}
Libido Support	Potential benefit	Low certainty	Male libido and sexual wellbeing: Two small placebo-controlled trials in healthy men reported better libido scores or "aging male" symptom scores. Open-label studies reported better sexual health but cannot show cause. The newest analysis says current evidence does not support testosterone-boosting or sexual claims. Women: sexual desire and arousal: One 8-week placebo-controlled trial of 80 healthy women with low sexual drive reported higher desire and arousal scores and a rise in free testosterone and estradiol. No other trial was found.	^{83 35 53 75 92 70}
Womens Wellness	Potential benefit	Very low certainty	Women: sexual desire and arousal: One 8-week placebo-controlled trial of 80 healthy women with low sexual drive reported higher desire and arousal scores and a rise in free testosterone and estradiol. No other trial was found. Breast milk supply: Fenugreek is widely used by breastfeeding mothers to boost milk, but the evidence is very uncertain. A Cochrane review rated the evidence low to very low, small trials of fenugreek tea or capsules reported more milk, and a trial of cookies found no effect. LactMed notes the effect may be mostly psychological and that safety data are limited.	^{70 27 43 58 88 73 15 64 89 1 34 66 93 39 84 79 44 74 87 81 76}
Muscle Recovery	Potential benefit	Very low certainty	Muscle strength and exercise: Small studies, mainly in male athletes, hint at slightly better strength and body composition, but most of the measures were not statistically clear in the pooled analysis.	^{40 5 90 35}
Physical Stamina	Potential benefit	Very low certainty	Muscle strength and exercise: Small studies, mainly in male athletes, hint at slightly better strength and body composition, but most of the measures were not statistically clear in the pooled analysis.	^{40 5 90 35}
Peak Performance	Potential benefit	Very low certainty	Muscle strength and exercise: Small studies, mainly in male athletes, hint at slightly better strength and body composition, but most of the measures were not statistically clear in the pooled analysis.	^{40 5 90 35}
Menopause Support	Potential benefit	Low certainty	Menopause symptoms (hot flushes, night sweats, mood): Three small placebo-controlled trials of branded extracts in women around menopause reported fewer hot flushes and night sweats and better scores for mood and quality of life. Two of them also saw rises in estradiol. None has been replicated by an independent team.	^{84 79 44 74}
Mood Balance	Potential benefit	Low certainty	Menopause symptoms (hot flushes, night sweats, mood): Three small placebo-controlled trials of branded extracts in women around menopause reported fewer hot flushes and night sweats and better scores for mood and quality of life. Two of them also saw rises in estradiol. None has been replicated by an independent team.	^{84 79 44 74}
Fertility Support	Potential benefit	Very low certainty	Polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS): Studies of one patented extract (Furocyst) reported smaller ovarian cysts and more regular periods, but two of the three studies had no placebo group and all are from the product developers.	^{87 81 76}
Memory Support	Potential benefit	Not enough evidence	Alzheimer's disease and Parkinson's disease: Two small trials in Iran and India reported better memory scores in Alzheimer's disease and slower worsening of Parkinson's scores. The reports are preliminary: one compared with the group's own start instead of with placebo, and neither has been repeated.	^{28 60}
Brain Health	Potential benefit	Not enough evidence	Alzheimer's disease and Parkinson's disease: Two small trials in Iran and India reported better memory scores in Alzheimer's disease and slower worsening of Parkinson's scores. The reports are preliminary: one compared with the group's own start instead of with placebo, and neither has been repeated.	^{28 60}

B. Body systems

Connected to	Kind of connection	Evidence status	Context	Studies
Immune system	Contraindication	Authoritative guidance	Allergy to fenugreek or cross-reaction with peanut and other legumes. Allergy and cross-reaction with peanut and other legumes. Preparation or compound: Seed proteins	^{95 23 24}
Endocrine system	Adverse effect or risk	Low certainty	Rises in estradiol and testosterone in trials; lower T3 in rodents (EU monograph). Preparation or compound: Concentrated extracts	^{95 79 70}
Endocrine system	Drug or supplement interaction	Low certainty	Lowers blood sugar and can add to diabetes medicines; extracts raised estradiol or testosterone in some trials. Preparation or compound: Fenugreek seed and extracts	^{46 79 92 95}
Endocrine System	Biological association	Low certainty	Studied for: Type 2 diabetes: blood sugar and HbA1c Studied for: Prediabetes: slowing the move to diabetes	^{61 31 46 78 20 49 85 45 69 33 59 38 32 25 29 67 26 21 47 72 52 22 55 80 92 54 40 82 51 90 71 53 75 83 35 70 84 79 44 74 87 81 76}
Metabolism Weight	Biological association	Low certainty	Studied for: Type 2 diabetes: blood sugar and HbA1c Studied for: Prediabetes: slowing the move to diabetes	^{61 31 46 78 20 49 85 45 69 33 59 38 32 25 29 67 26 21 47 8 37 30 55 18 19}
Digestive System	Biological association	Low certainty	Studied for: Blood sugar after a meal: fenugreek added to food Studied for: Fatty liver disease	^{72 52 22 10 55 18 19}
Cardiovascular System	Biological association	Low certainty	Studied for: Cholesterol and blood fats Studied for: Blood pressure	^{8 37 45 31 46 25 67 26 30 69 6 33}
Hepatic System	Biological association	Not enough evidence	Studied for: Fatty liver disease	¹⁰
Reproductive System	Biological association	Very low certainty	Studied for: Testosterone levels in men Studied for: Male libido and sexual wellbeing	^{92 54 40 82 51 90 71 53 75 83 35 70 27 43 58 88 73 15 64 89 1 34 66 93 39 84 79 44 74 87 81 76}
Musculoskeletal System	Biological association	Very low certainty	Studied for: Muscle strength and exercise	^{40 5 90 35}
Urinary System	Biological association	Not enough evidence	Studied for: Prostate enlargement symptoms	⁷¹
Nervous System	Biological association	Not enough evidence	Studied for: Alzheimer's disease and Parkinson's disease	^{28 60}

C. Body parts and organs

Connected to	Kind of connection	Evidence status	Context	Studies
Gut	Adverse effect or risk	Low certainty	Wind, diarrhoea and nausea are the most reported side effects. Wind, diarrhoea and nausea are the most reported effects. Preparation or compound: Seed powder and extracts	^{95 7 31}
Pancreas / blood sugar control	Drug or supplement interaction	Low certainty	May add to diabetes medicines; monitor blood sugar. Preparation or compound: Seed and seed extracts	^{95 99 38}
Liver	Adverse effect or risk	Very low certainty	One case of liver injury; trials did not report liver harm. Preparation or compound: Supplement taken with ribociclib	^{2 31}
Skin	Adverse effect or risk	Very low certainty	One case of toxic epidermal necrolysis; allergic skin and swelling reactions. Preparation or compound: Fenugreek taken by mouth; skin paste	^{12 65}
Lungs / airways	Adverse effect or risk	Very low certainty	Asthma worsening, wheezing; lung clots in men taking testosterone blends. Preparation or compound: Powder inhaled or eaten	^{65 1 4}
Reproductive organs	Contraindication	Authoritative guidance	Not recommended in pregnancy; animal studies show reproductive toxicity. Not recommended in pregnancy or breastfeeding; animal reproductive toxicity. Preparation or compound: Seed	^{95 99 63}
Blood vessels / clotting	Drug or supplement interaction	Very low certainty	Possible added effect with warfarin (one case); lung clots reported with testosterone blends. One case of higher INR with warfarin; two lung-clot case reports with testosterone-booster blends. Preparation or compound: Seed products	^{50 4 62}
Blood sugar control	Potential benefit	Low certainty	Small average falls in fasting sugar and HbA1c in people with type 2 diabetes; low certainty. Preparation or compound: Fenugreek seed and extracts	^{61 45 78}

I. Biomarkers

Connected to	Kind of connection	Evidence status	Context	Studies
Blood glucose	Drug or supplement interaction	Low certainty	Lowering effect can add to diabetes drugs. Preparation or compound: Seed and extracts	^{95 46}
Fasting blood glucose	Biological association	Low certainty	Measured in trials: lowered. A lab change is not the same as a health benefit.	^{61 31 45 25 78}
HbA1c (average blood sugar over about 3 months)	Biological association	Low certainty	Measured in trials: lowered. A lab change is not the same as a health benefit.	^{61 78 45 85 67}
Two-hour glucose after a sugar drink or meal	Biological association	Low certainty	Measured in trials: lowered. A lab change is not the same as a health benefit.	^{61 31 78 72 22}
Fasting insulin and HOMA-IR	Biological association	Mixed findings	Measured in trials: mixed. A lab change is not the same as a health benefit.	^{46 69 59 67}
Total cholesterol	Biological association	Low certainty	Measured in trials: lowered. A lab change is not the same as a health benefit.	^{8 45 31 67}
LDL cholesterol	Biological association	Low certainty	Measured in trials: lowered. A lab change is not the same as a health benefit.	^{8 45 46 31}
HDL cholesterol	Biological association	Low certainty	Measured in trials: raised. A lab change is not the same as a health benefit.	^{8 25 69}
Triglycerides	Biological association	Low certainty	Measured in trials: lowered. A lab change is not the same as a health benefit.	^{8 25 67 31}
Systolic blood pressure (top number)	Biological association	Very low certainty	Measured in trials: lowered. A lab change is not the same as a health benefit.	^{6 25}
Diastolic blood pressure (bottom number)	Biological association	Low certainty	Measured in trials: no-change. A lab change is not the same as a health benefit.	^{6 25}
Body weight and BMI	Biological association	Low certainty	Measured in trials: no-change. A lab change is not the same as a health benefit.	^{8 25}
Waist circumference	Biological association	Very low certainty	Measured in trials: lowered. A lab change is not the same as a health benefit.	²⁵
Total testosterone (men)	Biological association	Very low certainty	Measured in trials: raised. A lab change is not the same as a health benefit.	^{92 40 51}
Free testosterone (men)	Biological association	Very low certainty	Measured in trials: mixed. A lab change is not the same as a health benefit.	^{92 40 51}
Estradiol (women)	Biological association	Low certainty	Measured in trials: mixed. A lab change is not the same as a health benefit.	^{79 44 84 70}
Prolactin	Biological association	Low certainty	Measured in trials: no-change. A lab change is not the same as a health benefit.	^{73 83}
Breast milk volume	Biological association	Very low certainty	Measured in trials: raised. A lab change is not the same as a health benefit.	^{73 88 15 64}
PSA (prostate-specific antigen)	Biological association	Low certainty	Measured in trials: no-change. A lab change is not the same as a health benefit.	⁷¹
Period pain score (0 to 10)	Biological association	Low certainty	Measured in trials: lowered. A lab change is not the same as a health benefit.	^{34 66 39}
Menopause symptom scores and hot flushes	Biological association	Low certainty	Measured in trials: lowered. A lab change is not the same as a health benefit.	^{84 44 79}
Lean body mass, fat mass and leg press	Biological association	Very low certainty	Measured in trials: mixed. A lab change is not the same as a health benefit.	⁴⁰
Libido and sexual function scores	Biological association	Low certainty	Measured in trials: raised. A lab change is not the same as a health benefit.	^{83 70}
Fullness and fat intake	Biological association	Very low certainty	Measured in trials: mixed. A lab change is not the same as a health benefit.	^{55 18 19}

J. Genes, receptors and enzymes

Connected to	Kind of connection	Evidence status	Context	Studies
CYP2D6 and CYP3A4	Preliminary mechanism	Human	Inhibited by fenugreek extract in human liver microsomes; not significantly changed in six volunteers.	³
PRL (prolactin)	Preliminary mechanism	Human	No change in prolactin level in mothers given fenugreek.	⁷³
PMCH (melanin-concentrating hormone)	Preliminary mechanism	Human	Lower MCH levels correlated with better insulin sensitivity in healthy volunteers.	⁴⁷
SHBG, FSH	Preliminary mechanism	Human	SHBG and FSH fell in a perimenopausal trial of one extract.	⁴⁴

K. Biological pathways

Connected to	Kind of connection	Evidence status	Context	Studies
Insulin secretion by islet beta cells	Preliminary mechanism	In vitro	4-hydroxyisoleucine increased glucose-dependent insulin release in rat and human islets.	^{77 13}
Peanut allergens Ara h 1 and Ara h 3	Preliminary mechanism	In vitro	Fenugreek vicilin and legumin are homologous, offering an explanation for peanut cross-reaction.	²⁴

L. Active compounds

Connected to	Kind of connection	Evidence status	Context	Studies
Diosgenin	Biological association	Pharmacological theory	A plant steroid described in a 2023 review as mainly available in fenugreek and studied for effects on testosterone and strength. Its effects in people are not established. Preparation or compound: Seed	^{40 101}
Protodioscin (furostanol saponin)	Biological association	Rct	Used to standardise extracts tested for testosterone, menopause and PCOS. Human effects of the pure compound are not shown. Preparation or compound: Seed	^{53 44 87 101}
Trigonelline	Biological association	Animal	Named with protodioscin as a standardisation marker; a laboratory and animal compound studied for diabetes and brain effects. No human trial of the pure compound was found in our reading. Preparation or compound: Seed	^{44 101}
4-Hydroxyisoleucine	Biological association	In vitro	Raised insulin release from rat and human pancreatic islets only when glucose was high, and improved glucose tolerance in rats and dogs. A candidate for part of fenugreek's sugar-lowering action but not shown in human trials. Preparation or compound: Seed	^{77 13 101}
Sotolone (sotolon)	Biological association	In vitro	A flavour compound of fenugreek and also found in the urine of patients with maple syrup urine disease. Responsible for the maple-syrup smell in that disease; LactMed attributes the smell after fenugreek to it. Preparation or compound: Seed	^{68 1 101}
2,5-Dimethylpyrazine	Biological association	Human	One of eight compounds that appeared in armpit sweat only after fenugreek and gave the best-perceived maple-syrup note in two men. Preparation or compound: Appears in sweat after fenugreek tea	^{56 100}
Seed gum and fibre (galactomannans, mucilage)	Biological association	Rct	Fibre thickens in the gut; used in food trials (bread, flakes, isolated fibre) that lowered the sugar rise after a meal or raised fullness. Preparation or compound: Seed	^{86 72 22 55}
Flavonoids and isoflavones (quercetin, luteolin, genistein, vitexin)	Biological association	In vitro	LactMed lists these among the seed compounds. Their role in human effects is not shown. Preparation or compound: Seed	¹

Each connection is stored with the ingredient, the connected record, the kind of connection, the evidence status, the supporting studies, the preparation or compound involved, and a review date (last reviewed October 25, 2026).

Evidence at a glance: what changed in 23 lab markers

Tap a number to show only those markers. Counts are markers, not people.

Hormonal112 Metabolic51 Other5233

The evidence

The research centre for Fenugreek. Every record here was checked against PubMed or the publisher's page; we never list a study we have not verified.

Evidence by outcome

Bars show how many studies we found for each outcome, not how well it works. People are added up across trials only (reviews are not added, to avoid double counting).

How we rate evidence

High certainty

Several well-run trials or reviews agree; further research is unlikely to change the picture much.

Moderate certainty

Good trials point the same way, but some doubt remains.

Low certainty

Small, short or inconsistent trials. The finding could change with better research.

Very low certainty

Very little or very weak human data. Treat as a possibility only.

Mixed findings

Trials or reviews disagree with each other.

Not enough evidence

Not enough human research to say either way.

Evidence against

Good research found no benefit, or found harm.

We take the reviewers' own risk-of-bias and GRADE statements where they exist, and otherwise judge from study size, design, consistency, directness and whether a product matches what is sold. Many publications do not make evidence high. Method note: We searched PubMed, read the full text of the EU draft herbal monograph on fenugreek seed (revision 1, March 2021) and the US National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health page, read the LactMed entry through its PubMed record, and checked plant names in GBIF and the NCBI taxonomy and compounds in PubChem. Only abstracts were read for almost all studies. Some sources were not verified: LiverTox (it could not be opened), the final adopted EU monograph (the draft was read), the German Commission E monograph, and the WHO and FDA statements. Certainty ratings are the compiler's own reading, except where the reviewers gave their own (the 2026 testosterone review rates its evidence very low by GRADE; the 2024 dysmenorrhea review rates it low by GRADE). No study is cited that we could not verify.

Study library: every study we checked 101

Design Research type Plant part Year from Search

Study	Design	People	Product, dose, length	Result
2006 Fenugreek. · PMID 30000838	Authoritative guidance	Breastfeeding mothers and infants	Fenugreek seed as a milk booster seed Usual amounts quoted: 1 to 6 g a day for milk supply	LactMed (US National Library of Medicine) notes limited safety data; stomach and gut effects, allergy, asthma worsening and maple-syrup odour of urine, sweat and possibly breastmilk; 43% of 122 mothers thought it helped milk supply and 5% thought it hurt; caution with diabetes and warfarin. Methods, limits and funding Outcomes: Safety in breastfeeding Limitations: Database entry; no named authors. The text reports a survey where 45% of 85 mothers had an adverse reaction (as printed). Read: full-text
Al Harrak 2025 Ribociclib-Induced hepatotoxicity exacerbated by fenugreek supplement use: A case report. J Oncol Pharm Pract · PMID 40388649 · DOI	Case report	1 A 47-year-old woman with metastatic breast cancer on ribociclib	Fenugreek-based supplement seed	Grade III liver injury after starting ribociclib; the fenugreek supplement was discovered later; liver tests returned to normal after both were stopped. The authors rate a probable herb-drug interaction. Methods, limits and funding Outcomes: Liver injury scores Limitations: One case; ribociclib alone can injure the liver, so fenugreek's role is uncertain (RUCAM 4, Naranjo 4, DIPS 5). Read: abstract
Al-Jenoobi 2015 Effect of Trigonella foenum-graecum L. on Metabolic Activity of CYP2D6 and CYP3A4. Forsch Komplementmed · PMID 26335391 · DOI	Controlled trial	6 Six volunteers (in vivo part) plus lab work on human liver microsomes	Fenugreek seed powder and alcoholic extract seed Powder for 1 week 1 week · vs Same people before fenugreek	In the lab, high extract concentrations blocked CYP2D6 and CYP3A4. In six people, fenugreek did not significantly change these enzymes. Urinary metabolite changes not significant (p 0.257 and 0.333) Methods, limits and funding Outcomes: CYP2D6 and CYP3A4 activity using dextromethorphan Limitations: Only six people; no other drug enzymes tested. Read: abstract
Alakhras 2022 First-Time Submassive Pulmonary Embolism Likely Caused by Testosterone-Enhancing Supplement. Cureus · PMID 35733496 · DOI	Case report	1 A 75-year-old man with pulmonary embolism	A testosterone-booster supplement ("Eroxin") containing fenugreek seed Six months of use	The authors suggest fenugreek likely contributed; the supplement was a mixed product and no cause was proven. Methods, limits and funding Outcomes: Blood clot in the lungs Limitations: One case; multi-ingredient product; cause not proven. Funding and conflicts: Authors declare no competing interests Read: abstract
Albaker 2023 Fenugreek and Its Effects on Muscle Performance: A Systematic Review. J Pers Med · PMID 36983608 · DOI	Systematic review	6 randomized trials of fenugreek in exercise or sport	Fenugreek extracts seed extract Various Various · vs Control or placebo	Four of six trials found better strength or body composition; two small trials (under 10 people) were weak. Methods, limits and funding Outcomes: Muscle strength, endurance, lean mass, fat Limitations: Abstract only. Includes very small trials. The review also notes doping and kidney or liver concerns need awareness. Funding and conflicts: Authors declare no conflict of interest Read: abstract
Amini 2023 The Effects of Fenugreek Seed Consumption on Blood Pressure: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials. High Blood Press Cardiovasc Prev · PMID 36763260 · DOI	Meta-analysis	373 6 randomized trials	Fenugreek seed seed Larger effect reported in subgroup of 15 g/day or more Subgroup of 12 weeks or less · vs Control	Systolic pressure fell a little; diastolic did not. Systolic about 3.5 mmHg lower (the abstract prints the sign inconsistently); diastolic no clear change (SBP -6.33 to -0.59; DBP -5.82 to 12.21) Methods, limits and funding Outcomes: Systolic and diastolic blood pressure Limitations: Abstract only. Only 6 trials. Subgroup finding at high amounts is exploratory. Read: abstract
Amiri Ardekani 2026 Exploring the Adverse Effects of Fenugreek in Humans: A Scoping Review. Iran J Med Sci · PMID 41625343 · DOI	Systematic review	Scoping review of 60 articles (to September 2024)	Fenugreek by mouth or on the skin seed Various Various	Most common: mild stomach and gut upset. Also reported: low blood sugar, possible low potassium, allergic reactions, maple-syrup odour of urine, sweat or skin in infants and mothers, and drug interactions. 14 trials reported adverse effects, 23 reported none, 13 did not say; 10 allergy case reports. No deaths were attributed to fenugreek. Methods, limits and funding Outcomes: Reported adverse effects in humans Limitations: Abstract only. A scoping review does not rate the quality of each report. Funding and conflicts: Authors declare none Read: abstract
Askarpour 2020 Effect of fenugreek supplementation on blood lipids and body weight: A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. J Ethnopharmacol · PMID 32087319 · DOI	Meta-analysis	560 12 randomized trials (14 arms) in adults	Fenugreek supplements (various) seed Various Various · vs Control	Total cholesterol, triglycerides and LDL fell a little and HDL rose, while body weight and BMI did not change. TC -9.4 mg/dL; TG -13.8 mg/dL; LDL -6.6 mg/dL; HDL +3.5 mg/dL; weight +0.22 kg; BMI +0.09 (TC -15.4 to -3.3; TG -26.6 to -0.9; LDL -13.0 to -0.1; HDL 1.3 to 5.7; weight -0.51 to 0.96; BMI -0.24 to 0.43) Methods, limits and funding Outcomes: Blood lipids, body weight, BMI Limitations: Abstract only. The LDL and triglyceride intervals come close to zero. Authors say trials in people with high blood lipids are needed. Funding and conflicts: Authors declare no conflict of interest Read: abstract
Aurich 2019 Report of a Case of IgE-Mediated Anaphylaxis to Fenugreek. J Investig Allergol Clin Immunol · PMID 30785103 · DOI	Case report	1 One person with anaphylaxis to fenugreek	Fenugreek seed	Case report of severe allergic reaction (anaphylaxis). Methods, limits and funding Outcomes: IgE-mediated allergy Limitations: Only the title and citation were read; the record has no abstract. Read: title-only
Babaei 2020 Comparison of the efficacy of oral fenugreek seeds hydroalcoholic extract versus placebo in nonalcoholic fatty liver disease; a randomized, triple-blind controlled pilot clinical trial. Indian J Pharmacol · PMID 32565595 · DOI	Controlled trial	30 Adults with fatty liver disease (24 finished)	Hydroalcoholic extract of fenugreek seeds seed 1 g a day 3 months · vs Placebo	No significant differences between the groups. No significant difference Methods, limits and funding Outcomes: ALT, FibroScan steatosis score, liver stiffness, other labs Limitations: Pilot trial, 30 people, so a modest benefit could be missed. Funding and conflicts: Authors declare no conflicts of interest Read: abstract
Bartley 1981 "Maple-syrup" urine odor due to fenugreek ingestion. N Engl J Med · PMID 7254294 · DOI	Case report	Case reports of maple-syrup urine odor with fenugreek	Fenugreek by mouth seed	Maple-syrup urine odour was linked to fenugreek intake. Methods, limits and funding Outcomes: Urine odour Limitations: Only the title and citation were read; the record has no abstract. Read: title-only
Bentele-Jaberg 2015 The Phytotherapeutic Fenugreek as Trigger of Toxic Epidermal Necrolysis. Dermatology · PMID 26138328 · DOI	Case report	1 A 32-year-old woman one month after childbirth	Fenugreek herbal preparation taken for lactation seed Regular intake for 4 weeks	Toxic epidermal necrolysis, a severe skin reaction, was confirmed; allergy work-up pointed to fenugreek as the most likely cause. Recovered after treatment in hospital. Methods, limits and funding Outcomes: Skin reaction Limitations: One case; she also took painkillers. Read: abstract
Broca 1999 4-Hydroxyisoleucine: experimental evidence of its insulinotropic and antidiabetic properties. Am J Physiol · PMID 10516120 · DOI	Animal research animal	Normal rats and dogs; diabetic rats	4-hydroxyisoleucine seed compound 18 mg/kg or 50 mg/kg Single or 6 days · vs Control	Improved glucose tolerance in normal animals and lowered high blood sugar in diabetic rats. Methods, limits and funding Outcomes: Glucose tolerance and insulin Limitations: Animals only. Read: abstract
Buchholz 2011 German outbreak of Escherichia coli O104:H4 associated with sprouts. N Engl J Med · PMID 22029753 · DOI	Case control	Outbreak of E. coli O104:H4 in Germany in 2011	Sprouts sprouts · vs Controls	Sprouts were the most likely vehicle; the outbreak strain could not be found on seeds of the implicated lot. Methods, limits and funding Outcomes: Source of infection Limitations: The abstract does not name fenugreek. Read: abstract
Bumrungpert 2018 Effects of Fenugreek, Ginger, and Turmeric Supplementation on Human Milk Volume and Nutrient Content in Breastfeeding Mothers: A Randomized Double-Blind Controlled Trial. Breastfeed Med · PMID 30411974 · DOI	Controlled trial	50 Exclusively breastfeeding mothers	Mixed capsules of fenugreek, ginger and turmeric seed + other herbs Three capsules three times a day 4 weeks · vs Placebo	Milk volume rose 49% at week 2 and 103% at week 4 versus placebo; milk content unchanged; no extra side effects. Milk volume +49% (week 2); +103% (week 4) Methods, limits and funding Outcomes: Milk volume and milk content Limitations: A three-herb mixture, so fenugreek cannot be separated out. Read: abstract
Chan 2011 Effect of herbal consumption on time in therapeutic range of warfarin therapy in patients with atrial fibrillation. J Cardiovasc Pharmacol · PMID 21558883 · DOI	Cohort study	250 Adults with atrial fibrillation on warfarin	Herbs eaten in foods, including fenugreek (used by 1.2%) seed Frequency of use At least 6 months on warfarin · vs Infrequent users and non-users	People using several herbs 4 or more times a week had worse INR control. Fenugreek was used by too few to judge on its own. In range 58.1% (infrequent users) vs 51.1% (frequent users) Methods, limits and funding Outcomes: Time in the therapeutic INR range Limitations: Fenugreek effect not separable; observational. Read: abstract
Che 2017 Case reports of peanut-fenugreek and cashew-sumac cross-reactivity. J Allergy Clin Immunol Pract · PMID 28283164 · DOI	Case report	Case reports of cross-reactivity between peanut and fenugreek	Fenugreek seed	Case reports of peanut-fenugreek cross-reactivity. Methods, limits and funding Outcomes: Cross-reaction Limitations: Only the title and citation were read; the record has no abstract. Read: title-only
Chevassus 2009 A fenugreek seed extract selectively reduces spontaneous fat consumption in healthy volunteers. Eur J Clin Pharmacol · PMID 19809809 · DOI	Controlled trial	12 Healthy men, three-period crossover	Fenugreek seed extract seed extract 588 mg or 1176 mg a day 14 days each · vs Placebo	The higher dose reduced daily fat intake by 17.3%; total energy intake fell but not significantly. Fat intake 3.73 vs 4.51 MJ/day (95% CI -1.51 to -0.05 (p=0.038)) Methods, limits and funding Outcomes: Energy and fat intake Limitations: Twelve men; short. Read: abstract
Chevassus 2010 A fenugreek seed extract selectively reduces spontaneous fat intake in overweight subjects. Eur J Clin Pharmacol · PMID 20020282 · DOI	Controlled trial	39 Healthy overweight men	Hydroalcoholic fenugreek seed extract seed extract Fixed daily dose (not stated in abstract) 6 weeks · vs Placebo	Fat intake fell slightly; weight and appetite scores did not change. Fat intake relative to energy expenditure 0.26 vs 0.30 (p=0.032) Methods, limits and funding Outcomes: Energy and fat intake, weight, appetite scores, insulin Limitations: Short, men only, small. Read: abstract
Correia AGDS 2023 Effect of saffron and fenugreek on lowering blood glucose: A systematic review with meta-analysis. Phytother Res · PMID 36992660 · DOI	Meta-analysis	People with raised blood sugar; 19 studies for saffron and fenugreek together	Fenugreek (and, separately, saffron) seed Various Various · vs Control groups	Fenugreek lowered fasting glucose, after-meal glucose and HbA1c, with very high disagreement between trials. Standardized mean differences: fasting -0.90; postprandial -1.13; HbA1c -0.43 (Fasting -1.43 to -0.38 (I2 87%); postprandial -1.99 to -0.28 (I2 94%); HbA1c -0.75 to -0.12 (I2 20%)) Methods, limits and funding Outcomes: Fasting glucose, postprandial glucose, HbA1c Limitations: Abstract only. Standardized differences are not in glucose units, and the authors note shortcomings that need attention. Read: abstract
Demmers 2017 Effects of medicinal food plants on impaired glucose tolerance: A systematic review of randomized controlled trials. Diabetes Res Clin Pract · PMID 28750220 · DOI	Systematic review	Adults with impaired glucose tolerance; 10 trials, at least 6 weeks	Medicinal food plants (curcumin, fenugreek, flaxseed and others) seed Various At least 6 weeks · vs Control	The main positive result was for curcumin. The authors say fenugreek and flaxseed may also be effective, but studies were low quality and most were highly biased. No fenugreek numbers in the abstract Methods, limits and funding Outcomes: Two-hour glucose, HbA1c, insulin resistance Limitations: Abstract only. Most studies were at high risk of bias (incomplete data, selective reporting). Read: abstract
Deshpande 2025 Effect of 'FenuflakesTM' on 24-hour glycemic variability in adults with type 2 diabetes: A randomized crossover continuous glucose monitoring study. Asia Pac J Clin Nutr · PMID 41038677 · DOI	Controlled trial	21 Adults with type 2 diabetes (15 completed), crossover	Defatted fenugreek seed flakes ("Fenuflakes") seed 30 g a day added to diet 14 days, vs 14 days control diet · vs Control diet	24-hour glucose rise and glucose swings were lower on the fenugreek diet. iAUC p=0.02; mean amplitude of glycemic excursions p=0.006 Methods, limits and funding Outcomes: 24-hour glucose by continuous monitor, glucose swings, fasting glucose, HbA1c Limitations: Small; 6 of 21 did not finish; HbA1c over 14 days is not a meaningful change. Sponsor staff (In-dus Biotech) are authors. Funding and conflicts: Three authors are employees of the sponsor, In-dus Biotech Ltd., India (not involved in data collection and analysis, per the paper) Read: abstract
Faeste 2009 Allergenicity and antigenicity of fenugreek (Trigonella foenum-graecum) proteins in foods. J Allergy Clin Immunol · PMID 18930518 · DOI	Cross sectional	29 Sera from 29 patients with IgE to peanut and other legumes; 2 patients tested by skin prick and food challenge	Fenugreek seed powder seed About 2 mg elicited objective symptoms in one open challenge	Most sera had IgE to both peanut and fenugreek; fenugreek sensitisation was thought to come from cross-reaction in peanut-allergic people. About one third of fenugreek-containing foods were labelled correctly. Methods, limits and funding Outcomes: IgE binding, fenugreek allergens Limitations: Lab and small clinical study. Read: abstract
Faeste 2010 Characterization of potential allergens in fenugreek (Trigonella foenum-graecum) using patient sera and MS-based proteomic analysis. J Proteomics · PMID 20219717 · DOI	Laboratory research in-vitro	13 Sera from 13 people with IgE to peanut and fenugreek	Fenugreek proteins seed	Fenugreek vicilin and legumin proteins resemble peanut allergens Ara h 1 and Ara h 3, which offers an explanation for cross-reaction. Methods, limits and funding Outcomes: Allergen identification Limitations: Laboratory protein work. Read: abstract
Fakhr 2023 Effects of fenugreek supplementation on the components of metabolic syndrome: A systematic review and dose-response meta-analysis of randomized clinical trials. Pharmacol Res · PMID 36470549 · DOI	Meta-analysis	29 randomized trials (31 arms)	Fenugreek supplementation (various) seed Dose-response analysis done; doses not given in abstract Various · vs Control	Fasting glucose, triglycerides, waist size and systolic blood pressure fell and HDL rose. Diastolic blood pressure and BMI did not change significantly. FPG -16.75 mg/dL; TG -20.12 mg/dL; HDL +3.55 mg/dL; waist -2.51; SBP -3.45 mmHg; DBP +3.17 (not significant); BMI -0.40 (not significant) (FPG -23.36 to -10.15; TG -34.24 to -5.99; HDL 1.98 to 5.12; WC -3.78 to -1.24; SBP -6.38 to -0.52; DBP -5.40 to 11.73; BMI -1.11 to 0.32) Methods, limits and funding Outcomes: Fasting glucose, triglycerides, HDL, waist, blood pressure, BMI Limitations: Abstract only. Pooled trials were mixed in populations and preparations. Funding and conflicts: Authors declare no conflict of interest Read: abstract
Florentin 2019 No effect of fenugreek, bergamot and olive leaf extract on glucose homeostasis in patients with prediabetes: a randomized double-blind placebo-controlled study. Arch Med Sci Atheroscler Dis · PMID 31448348 · DOI	Controlled trial	100 Adults with prediabetes (87 completed)	Combination of fenugreek, olive leaf polyphenols and bergamot extract seed 6 months · vs Placebo	No change in HbA1c or any other glucose or lipid measure in either group. No significant change Methods, limits and funding Outcomes: HbA1c (main), fasting glucose, insulin, HOMA-IR, lipids Limitations: A combination product, so it cannot say what fenugreek alone does. Abstract only. Funding and conflicts: Authors declare no conflict of interest Read: abstract
Foong 2020 Oral galactagogues (natural therapies or drugs) for increasing breast milk production in mothers of non-hospitalised term infants. Cochrane Database Syst Rev · PMID 32421208 · DOI	Systematic review	3005 41 randomized trials of galactagogues; 27 of natural products including fenugreek	Oral galactagogues; fenugreek among many seed Various Various · vs Placebo, no treatment or other	Overall certainty low to very low. Natural galactagogues including fenugreek were too varied to pool; the authors are very uncertain whether fenugreek improves infant weight. Reported side effects included maple-syrup-smelling urine and infant hives. Methods, limits and funding Outcomes: Milk volume, infant weight, breastfeeding rates, side effects Limitations: Cochrane review (search to November 2019). Fenugreek was one of many products, and several studies used mixtures. Funding and conflicts: Several authors declare lactation-related interests (see paper); none tied to fenugreek products Read: abstract
Foroumandi 2023 The effects of fenugreek seed extract supplementation in patients with Alzheimer's disease: A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Phytother Res · PMID 36199177 · DOI	Controlled trial	82 People with mild to moderate Alzheimer's disease in care homes in Iran	Fenugreek seed extract (liquid) seed extract 5 cc a day 4 months · vs Placebo	Authors report better memory, mood and quality of life and lower blood pressure in the fenugreek group compared with its own starting point. Methods, limits and funding Outcomes: Memory, depression, quality of life, blood pressure, oxidative markers Limitations: Abstract reports within-group changes from baseline; the between-group comparison is not given. Treat as preliminary. Read: abstract
Gaddam 2015 Role of Fenugreek in the prevention of type 2 diabetes mellitus in prediabetes. J Diabetes Metab Disord · PMID 26436069 · DOI	Controlled trial	140 Adults aged 30 to 70 with prediabetes	Fenugreek powder seed 5 g twice a day before meals (10 g a day) 3 years · vs Matched controls (not described as placebo in the abstract)	Fewer people developed diabetes on fenugreek. Fasting glucose, after-meal glucose and LDL fell and insulin rose. Controls had 4.2 times the chance of developing diabetes Methods, limits and funding Outcomes: Conversion to type 2 diabetes, fasting and after-meal glucose, LDL, insulin Limitations: Abstract only. The control group was not clearly blinded or given a placebo. Small, single-centre study. Read: abstract
Geberemeskel 2019 Antidiabetic Effect of Fenugreek Seed Powder Solution (Trigonella foenum-graecum L.) on Hyperlipidemia in Diabetic Patients. J Diabetes Res · PMID 31583253 · DOI	Controlled trial	114 Newly diagnosed type 2 diabetes	Fenugreek seed powder solution seed 25 g twice a day 1 month · vs Metformin group (not a placebo)	Total cholesterol, triglycerides and LDL fell and HDL rose in the fenugreek group. Total cholesterol -13.6%; triglycerides -23.5%; LDL -23.4%; HDL +21.7% (within group) Methods, limits and funding Outcomes: Lipid profile Limitations: The comparison group took metformin, not a placebo. The amount (50 g a day) is very high. Short (1 month). Abstract only. Funding and conflicts: Authors declare no competing interests Read: abstract
Gong 2016 Effect of fenugreek on hyperglycaemia and hyperlipidemia in diabetes and prediabetes: A meta-analysis. J Ethnopharmacol · PMID 27496582 · DOI	Meta-analysis	People with diabetes or prediabetes in 10 articles (12 studies)	Fenugreek (various) seed Various Various · vs Control groups	Fasting glucose, 2-hour glucose, HbA1c and total cholesterol fell. Triglycerides, LDL and HDL did not change clearly. No liver or kidney harm found; main side effect was stomach and gut discomfort. Fasting glucose MD -0.84 mmol/L; 2-hour glucose -1.30 mmol/L; HbA1c -1.16; total cholesterol -0.30 mmol/L (Fasting -1.38 to -0.31; 2-hour -1.78 to -0.83; HbA1c -1.23 to -1.09; total cholesterol -0.56 to -0.03) Methods, limits and funding Outcomes: Fasting glucose, 2-hour glucose, HbA1c, lipids, side effects Limitations: Abstract only. Some included studies were low quality. The HbA1c interval is very narrow for such mixed trials, so treat it with caution. Read: abstract
Gupta 2001 Effect of Trigonella foenum-graecum (fenugreek) seeds on glycaemic control and insulin resistance in type 2 diabetes mellitus: a double blind placebo controlled study. J Assoc Physicians India · PMID 11868855	Controlled trial	25 Adults newly diagnosed with mild type 2 diabetes	Hydroalcoholic extract of fenugreek seeds seed 1 g per day 2 months · vs Usual care (diet, exercise) plus placebo capsules	Fasting and 2-hour glucose did not differ between groups. Area under the glucose and insulin curves, insulin sensitivity and triglycerides improved on fenugreek. Fasting glucose 148.3 to 119.9 (fenugreek) vs 137.5 to 113.0 (control), not different; insulin sensitivity 112.9 vs 92.2 percent (p<0.05) Methods, limits and funding Outcomes: Fasting and 2-hour glucose, area under the curve for glucose and insulin, insulin resistance (HOMA), lipids Limitations: Very small (12 vs 13 people). Abstract only; some figures printed in the abstract look inconsistent, so we quote few of them. Read: abstract
Hadi 2020 The effect of fenugreek seed supplementation on serum irisin levels, blood pressure, and liver and kidney function in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus: A parallel randomized clinical trial. Complement Ther Med · PMID 32147060 · DOI	Controlled trial	50 Adults with type 2 diabetes taking diabetes drugs	Fenugreek seed powder seed 5 g three times a day 8 weeks · vs Control group (no placebo stated); both groups on drugs	Fasting glucose was lower than in the control group; ALT and ALP changed. Within the fenugreek group, AST, systolic blood pressure and irisin fell. Diastolic pressure did not change. Fasting glucose p=0.024 vs control; ALT p=0.02; ALP p=0.001 Methods, limits and funding Outcomes: Irisin, blood pressure, liver and kidney tests, fasting glucose Limitations: Abstract only. Many results are within-group comparisons. Registered trial IRCT20190618043924N1. Funding and conflicts: Authors declare no conflict of interest Registration: IRCT20190618043924N1 Read: abstract
Hassanzadeh 2024 The Effect of Fenugreek on the Severity of Dysmenorrhea: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis. Curr Drug Res Rev · PMID 37594100 · DOI	Meta-analysis	Women with painful periods; 4 articles	Fenugreek seed (various) seed Various Various · vs Placebo, mefenamic acid, Chandrasura churna	Pain was lower than placebo. Not different from mefenamic acid or the other herbal comparator. The authors rate the evidence low and the effect "highly uncertain". Versus placebo SMD -2.21 (-3.26 to -1.17) Methods, limits and funding Outcomes: Pain severity Limitations: Abstract only. GRADE: low quality. Only four small trials. Read: abstract
Hausenblas 2020 Efficacy of fenugreek seed extract on men's psychological and physical health: a randomized placebo-controlled double-blind clinical trial. J Complement Integr Med · PMID 32441668 · DOI	Controlled trial	57 Healthy young men (average age 26)	Fenugreek seed extract seed extract 400 mg or 500 mg a day 60 days · vs Placebo	Fenugreek groups scored better on symptoms, anxiety, grip strength and quality of life. No adverse events reported. Methods, limits and funding Outcomes: Aging-male symptoms, quality of life, grip strength, anxiety Limitations: Abstract gives no numbers. The men were healthy and young, so this is not a test in men with low testosterone. Registration: NCT03528538 Read: abstract
Heck 2000 Potential interactions between alternative therapies and warfarin. Am J Health Syst Pharm · PMID 10902065	Systematic review	Review of herbs and warfarin	Herbs including fenugreek seed	Lists fenugreek among herbs that may increase bleeding risk or add to warfarin. Notes nearly all information is from lab studies, animals or single case reports. Methods, limits and funding Outcomes: Potential interactions with warfarin Limitations: Fenugreek is listed as a "potential" interaction; the evidence is weak. Read: abstract
Heshmat-Ghahdarijani 2020 Effect of fenugreek consumption on serum lipid profile: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Phytother Res · PMID 32385866 · DOI	Meta-analysis	15 randomized trials: 281 on fenugreek and 255 controls in 11 controlled articles, plus 136 in 4 uncontrolled	Fenugreek (various) seed Various Various · vs Control groups	Pooled controlled trials showed lower total cholesterol, LDL and triglycerides and higher HDL; the uncontrolled studies did not show the same fall in TC, TG and LDL. Total cholesterol -1.13; LDL -1.26; triglycerides -1.07; HDL +0.70 (units not stated in abstract) (TC -1.88 to -0.37; LDL -2.09 to -0.43; TG -1.82 to -0.33; HDL 0.07 to 1.34) Methods, limits and funding Outcomes: Total cholesterol, LDL, triglycerides, HDL Limitations: Abstract only. The abstract does not state the units of these differences. English-language articles only. Read: abstract
Hota 2024 A Placebo-Controlled, Double-Blind Clinical Investigation to Evaluate the Efficacy of a Patented Trigonella foenum-graecum Seed Extract "Fenfuro®" in Type 2 Diabetics. J Am Nutr Assoc · PMID 37459747 · DOI	Controlled trial	204 Adults with type 2 diabetes on metformin and/or a sulfonylurea	Patented fenugreek seed extract rich in furostanol saponins ("Fenfuro") seed 500 mg twice a day 12 weeks · vs Drugs alone	After-meal glucose fell by more than 33% and fasting glucose fell more than in the drug-only group; HOMA index fell from 4.27 to 3.765. After-meal glucose down more than 33%; insulin down more than 10% Methods, limits and funding Outcomes: After-meal and fasting glucose, HOMA, insulin, safety Limitations: The title says placebo-controlled and double-blind but the abstract objective says open-labelled and compares with drugs only, so blinding is unclear. Product-linked authors (patented extract). Abstract only. Funding and conflicts: Patented commercial extract (Fenfuro); competing-interest statement not read Read: abstract
Inanmdar 2016 Clinical efficacy of Trigonella foenum graecum (Fenugreek) and dry cupping therapy on intensity of pain in patients with primary dysmenorrhea. Chin J Integr Med · PMID 27225291 · DOI	Controlled trial	60 Women with primary painful periods	Fenugreek seed powder, with or without dry cupping seed 3 g twice a day on days 1 to 3 3 months · vs Mefenamic acid 500 mg twice a day	Pain reduction was about the same in all groups. Pain down 66.89% (fenugreek), 66.49% (fenugreek and cupping), 62.88% (mefenamic acid) Methods, limits and funding Outcomes: Lower abdominal pain Limitations: Open-label, not blinded, no placebo group. Read: abstract
Isenmann 2023 The Anabolic Effect of Fenugreek: A Systematic Review with Meta-analysis. Int J Sports Med · PMID 37253363 · DOI	Meta-analysis	449 7 studies (378 men, 71 women), mostly male athletes	Fenugreek extracts seed extract Various Various · vs Control	Small effect on total testosterone; the other measures moved in the expected direction but their intervals included zero. Total testosterone SMD 0.32; free testosterone 0.24; lean mass 0.19; fat mass -0.19; leg press 0.22 (Total 0.09 to 0.55; free -0.04 to 0.52; lean mass -0.10 to 0.49; fat mass -0.44 to 0.05; leg press -0.02 to 0.47) Methods, limits and funding Outcomes: Testosterone, lean mass, fat mass, leg press Limitations: Abstract only. The authors conclude "performance-enhancing and anabolic effects", but only total testosterone was statistically clear, so we do not repeat that conclusion. Funding and conflicts: Authors declare no conflict of interest Read: abstract
Izzo 2005 Cardiovascular pharmacotherapy and herbal medicines: the risk of drug interaction. Int J Cardiol · PMID 15676159 · DOI	Systematic review	43 case reports and 8 trials of herb-drug interactions with heart drugs	Herbs including fenugreek seed	Fenugreek is listed among herbs that interact with warfarin (over-anticoagulation). Methods, limits and funding Outcomes: Interactions with cardiovascular drugs Limitations: Fenugreek here rests on the single boldo-fenugreek case. Read: abstract
Joseph 2018 Fenugreek Anaphylaxis in a Pediatric Patient. Allergy Rhinol (Providence) · PMID 29977649 · DOI	Case report	1 A child with fenugreek anaphylaxis	Fenugreek in food seed	First pediatric case proven by skin test and IgE tests with a clear ingestion; two earlier child cases were less clear. Methods, limits and funding Outcomes: Allergy testing Limitations: One child. Read: abstract
Khan 2018 Effectiveness of fenugreek as a galactagogue: A network meta-analysis. Phytother Res · PMID 29193352 · DOI	Meta-analysis	122 5 studies with 122 women on fenugreek	Fenugreek as a milk-boosting herb (network meta-analysis) seed Various Various · vs Placebo, control, other galactagogues	Fenugreek increased milk amount versus placebo in 4 studies, but was less effective than Coleus amboinicus and palm date. Versus placebo: 11.11 (units not stated); pairwise versus comparators 17.79 (Versus placebo 6.77 to 15.46; pairwise 11.71 to 23.88) Methods, limits and funding Outcomes: Breast milk amount Limitations: Only five small studies; units are not given in the abstract. Read: abstract
Khanna 2020 Efficacy of a novel extract of fenugreek seeds in alleviating vasomotor symptoms and depression in perimenopausal women: A randomized, double-blinded, placebo-controlled study. J Food Biochem · PMID 33025616 · DOI	Controlled trial	48 Women with perimenopausal symptoms	Standardised fenugreek seed extract (FHE) seed extract 250 mg twice a day 42 days · vs Placebo	Hot flashes, night sweats, depression and insomnia scores improved; estradiol, free testosterone and progesterone rose and FSH and SHBG fell. Hot flashes -25.9%; night sweats -26.5%; depression -31.8%; insomnia -21.6%; estradiol +18.9% Methods, limits and funding Outcomes: Menopause Rating Scale, hormones Limitations: Only 24 per group; short; the extract is a branded product. Read: abstract
Khodamoradi 2020 The Effects of Fenugreek on Cardiometabolic Risk Factors in Adults: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis. Complement Ther Med · PMID 32951700 · DOI	Meta-analysis	Adults in 12 articles	Fenugreek seed versus placebo seed Various Various · vs Placebo	Fenugreek seed lowered fasting sugar, HbA1c, total cholesterol and LDL. Other cardiometabolic measures did not change significantly. Authors warn of high disagreement for blood sugar. Fasting sugar -12.94 mg/dL; HbA1c -0.58; total cholesterol -9.13 mg/dL; LDL -11.11 mg/dL (FBS -21.39 to -4.49 (I2 85%); HbA1c -0.99 to -0.17; TC -13.83 to -4.43; LDL -20.32 to -1.90) Methods, limits and funding Outcomes: Fasting blood sugar, HbA1c, lipids, other cardiometabolic markers Limitations: Abstract only. Search 2000 to July 2019, English only. Read: abstract
Kim 2023 The Effect of Fenugreek in Type 2 Diabetes and Prediabetes: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials. Int J Mol Sci · PMID 37762302 · DOI	Meta-analysis	706 People with type 2 diabetes or prediabetes in 10 randomized trials	Fenugreek (various) seed Various Various · vs Control groups	Fenugreek lowered fasting glucose, 2-hour glucose and HbA1c, and improved total cholesterol, triglycerides and HDL. It did not lower insulin resistance (HOMA-IR), LDL or BMI. No liver or kidney harm; mild stomach and gut upset in some trials. Significant reductions reported for fasting glucose, 2-hour glucose, HbA1c, total cholesterol, triglycerides; HDL improved; HOMA-IR, LDL and BMI not significant Methods, limits and funding Outcomes: Fasting glucose, 2-hour glucose, HbA1c, HOMA-IR, lipids, BMI, safety Limitations: Abstract only; the abstract gives no pooled numbers. Preparations and doses differed between trials. Funding and conflicts: Authors report no conflict of interest Read: abstract
Kiss 2018 Insulin-Sensitizer Effects of Fenugreek Seeds in Parallel with Changes in Plasma MCH Levels in Healthy Volunteers. Int J Mol Sci · PMID 29518003 · DOI	Controlled trial	Healthy volunteers, including some with impaired glucose responses	Fenugreek seed preparation by mouth seed	Authors report better glucose tolerance, especially in people with impaired responses, linked to lower MCH levels. Methods, limits and funding Outcomes: Insulin sensitivity (hyperinsulinemic euglycemic clamp), melanin-concentrating hormone Limitations: Abstract gives no numbers, no group sizes and no dose. Treat as preliminary. Funding and conflicts: Authors declare no conflict of interest Read: abstract
Korman 2001 Pseudo-maple syrup urine disease due to maternal prenatal ingestion of fenugreek. J Paediatr Child Health · PMID 11532065 · DOI	Case report	Newborns whose mothers took fenugreek during labour	Fenugreek by mouth in late pregnancy seed	Newborns had a maple-syrup smell, leading to a false suspicion of maple syrup urine disease; sotolone is the shared odour compound. Methods, limits and funding Outcomes: Odour of newborn Limitations: Short report. Read: abstract
Kumar 2023 Comparative effectiveness of six herbs in the management of glycemic status of type 2 diabetes mellitus patients: A systematic review and network meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Diabetes Metab Syndr · PMID 37451111 · DOI	Meta-analysis	3130 Adults with type 2 diabetes; 44 trials of six herbs	Fenugreek among six herbs (apple cider vinegar, cinnamon, curcumin, fenugreek, others) seed Various Various · vs Placebo	Fenugreek, apple cider vinegar, cinnamon and curcumin each lowered fasting glucose versus placebo; only apple cider vinegar and fenugreek seeds lowered HbA1c. Fenugreek fasting glucose SMD -19.64; HbA1c effect printed as 0.84 (sign not clear in abstract) Methods, limits and funding Outcomes: Fasting glucose, HbA1c (network meta-analysis) Limitations: Abstract only. The reported standardized differences are unusually large and the sign printed for fenugreek HbA1c is unclear, so we do not quote a size. Only English-language trials. Funding and conflicts: Authors declare no competing interests Read: abstract
Lambert 2001 Potential interaction between warfarin and boldo-fenugreek. Pharmacotherapy · PMID 11310527 · DOI	Case report	1 A woman on warfarin for atrial fibrillation	Products containing boldo and fenugreek seed	INR rose while she took both herbs, returned to normal a week after stopping, and rose again when both were restarted. Methods, limits and funding Outcomes: INR (blood thinning level) Limitations: One person; two herbs together, so fenugreek alone is not proven. The authors rate the link "probable" using the Naranjo scale. Read: abstract
Lee-Ødegård 2024 Effect of a plant extract of fenugreek (Trigonella foenum-graecum) on testosterone in blood plasma and saliva in a double blind randomized controlled intervention study. PLoS One · PMID 39288153 · DOI	Controlled trial	95 Men aged 40 to 80	Fenugreek extract plus essential nutrients (Trigozim) seed extract 600, 1200 or 1800 mg a day (extract, with nutrients) 12 weeks · vs Placebo	Blood total testosterone and free testosterone index rose but not clearly more than placebo; saliva testosterone rose versus placebo. No effect on libido or side effects noticed. Saliva testosterone +37.2% vs placebo (p=0.042) for any dose; 1800 mg: +19.6% saliva (p=0.006); blood total testosterone +9.0% vs placebo (p=0.122) Methods, limits and funding Outcomes: Blood and saliva testosterone, libido questionnaire Limitations: Contains added nutrients (a combination). Industry-funded. Funding and conflicts: Funded by Vitas Ltd; authors own or lead the company that ran the trial Read: abstract
Losso 2009 Fenugreek bread: a treatment for diabetes mellitus. J Med Food · PMID 19857068 · DOI	Controlled trial	8 Adults with diet-controlled diabetes, crossover	Bread containing 5% fenugreek flour seed Two slices (56 g) Single meal, 4-hour tests, a week apart · vs Regular wheat bread	Glucose area under the curve was lower with fenugreek bread but not significantly; insulin area was lower (p<0.05). Insulin area under the curve p<0.05; glucose not significant Methods, limits and funding Outcomes: Glucose and insulin after the meal Limitations: Only 8 people. Single meal. Abstract only. Read: abstract
Maheshwari 2017 Efficacy of Furosap(TM), a novel Trigonella foenum-graecum seed extract, in Enhancing Testosterone Level and Improving Sperm Profile in Male Volunteers. Int J Med Sci · PMID 28138310 · DOI	Single arm	50 Men aged 35 to 65	Furosap (20% protodioscin fenugreek seed extract) seed extract 500 mg a day 12 weeks	Free testosterone was reported up to 46% higher in 90% of men; sperm counts improved in 85%. No control group. Free testosterone improved up to 46% Methods, limits and funding Outcomes: Free and total testosterone, sperm profile, libido, mood, safety Limitations: No placebo, not blinded, so changes cannot be credited to fenugreek. Funding and conflicts: Industry-linked: authors include officers of Cepham, Inc., which developed the extract Read: abstract
Mansoori 2020 Effect of fenugreek extract supplement on testosterone levels in male: A meta-analysis of clinical trials. Phytother Res · PMID 32048383 · DOI	Meta-analysis	Men in 4 randomized trials	Fenugreek extract (various) seed extract Various Various · vs Control	Authors report a significant effect on total testosterone. Significant effect reported; size not in abstract Methods, limits and funding Outcomes: Total testosterone Limitations: Abstract gives no numbers. Only four trials. Read: abstract
Mathern 2009 Effect of fenugreek fiber on satiety, blood glucose and insulin response and energy intake in obese subjects. Phytother Res · PMID 19353539 · DOI	Controlled trial	18 Obese adults, crossover	Isolated fenugreek fibre seed fibre 4 g or 8 g added to breakfast Single breakfast tests · vs Breakfast without fibre	The 8 g dose increased fullness and reduced hunger. Blood sugar area did not change; insulin area rose. Lunch intake was lower than with 4 g but not significantly lower than control. Taste was rated worse with more fibre. Methods, limits and funding Outcomes: Hunger, fullness, blood sugar and insulin, lunch intake Limitations: Single blind, 18 people, one day. Abstract only. Read: abstract
Mebazaa 2011 Analysis of human male armpit sweat after fenugreek ingestion: Characterisation of odour active compounds by gas chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry and olfactometry. Food Chem · PMID 25214354 · DOI	Other	2 Two male volunteers	Fenugreek infusion seed · vs Before versus after	Eight compounds appeared only after fenugreek; 2,5-dimethylpyrazine gave the best-perceived maple-syrup note. The paper points to these, not sotolone, for sweat odour. Methods, limits and funding Outcomes: Compounds in armpit sweat Limitations: Two men. Read: abstract
Monastiri 1997 Fenugreek odour in maple syrup urine disease. J Inherit Metab Dis · PMID 9266407 · DOI	Case report	A report on fenugreek odour in maple syrup urine disease	Fenugreek seed	Report on the fenugreek odour in maple syrup urine disease. Methods, limits and funding Outcomes: Odour Limitations: Only the title and citation were read; the record has no abstract. Read: title-only
Mortel 2013 Systematic review of the efficacy of herbal galactogogues. J Hum Lact · PMID 23468043 · DOI	Systematic review	6 trials of herbal milk boosters (shatavari, torbangun, fenugreek, milk thistle and a Japanese herbal medicine)	Herbal galactogogues seed Various Various · vs Various	Five of six trials found more milk but trials were small and flawed; the authors made no recommendation to use herbs. Methods, limits and funding Outcomes: Breast milk production Limitations: Abstract only; fenugreek was one of five preparations. Read: abstract
Najdi 2019 A randomized controlled clinical trial evaluating the effect of Trigonella foenum-graecum (fenugreek) versus glibenclamide in patients with diabetes. Afr Health Sci · PMID 31148988 · DOI	Controlled trial	12 Adults with uncontrolled type 2 diabetes already taking metformin (9 completed)	Fenugreek seed 2 g a day (versus glibenclamide 5 mg a day) 12 weeks · vs Glibenclamide	Fasting glucose did not drop significantly. Insulin rose and the HDL/LDL ratio changed. No liver or kidney problems noted. Fasting glucose p=0.63; insulin p=0.04 Methods, limits and funding Outcomes: Fasting glucose, insulin, lipid ratio, liver and kidney function Limitations: Only 12 people recruited and 9 finished, so it cannot show whether fenugreek works. Read: abstract
Nathan 2014 Efficacy and safety of standardized extract of Trigonella foenum-graecum L seeds as an adjuvant to L-Dopa in the management of patients with Parkinson's disease. Phytother Res · PMID 23512705 · DOI	Controlled trial	50 People with Parkinson's disease stabilised on L-dopa	Standardised fenugreek seed extract (IBHB) seed extract 300 mg twice a day 6 months · vs Placebo	Authors report slower rise in UPDRS scores than placebo and good safety. Total UPDRS rose 0.098% (extract) vs 13.36% (placebo) Methods, limits and funding Outcomes: Parkinson's rating scale (UPDRS), Hoehn and Yahr stage Limitations: A small proof-of-concept trial; the competing-interest statement was not read. It does not show fenugreek treats Parkinson's. Read: abstract
Neelakantan 2014 Effect of fenugreek (Trigonella foenum-graecum L.) intake on glycemia: a meta-analysis of clinical trials. Nutr J · PMID 24438170 · DOI	Meta-analysis	Adults in 10 trials of at least 1 week; medium or high doses in people with diabetes drove the effect	Fenugreek seed products (various) seed Various (low, medium, high groups) At least 1 week · vs Control interventions	Blood sugar measures fell, but trials disagreed a lot and most were of low methodological quality. Fasting glucose -0.96 mmol/l; 2-hour glucose -2.19 mmol/l (7 trials); HbA1c -0.85 percentage points (3 trials) (Fasting 95% CI -1.52 to -0.40 (I2 80%); 2-hour -3.19 to -1.19 (I2 71%); HbA1c -1.49 to -0.22 (I2 0%)) Methods, limits and funding Outcomes: Fasting blood glucose, 2-hour postload glucose, HbA1c Limitations: Abstract only. Search ended November 2013. Most trials low quality. Effects were seen only with medium or high doses in people with diabetes. Authors say better trials with a well-defined preparation are needed. Read: abstract
Nguyen 2017 Pulmonary Embolism Secondary to Testosterone-Enhancing Herbal Supplement Use. Cureus · PMID 29018642 · DOI	Case report	1 A man with new bilateral pulmonary embolism	Fenugreek-containing testosterone supplements seed Daily use	The authors raise a possible link; fenugreek compounds were proposed to raise testosterone, which can thicken blood. Methods, limits and funding Outcomes: Blood clot in the lungs Limitations: One case; mixed product; speculation about mechanism. Funding and conflicts: Authors declare no competing interests Read: abstract
Ouzir 2016 Toxicological properties of fenugreek (Trigonella foenum graecum). Food Chem Toxicol · PMID 27498339 · DOI	Systematic review animal	Narrative toxicology review of human, rodent, rabbit and chick data	Fenugreek seed seed Various Various	Reports birth defects and reduced fertility mostly in animals, with oxidative stress and testicular harm in male animals and anti-implantation effects in females. Advises against use in pregnancy and in people with peanut or chickpea allergy. Methods, limits and funding Outcomes: Toxic and reproductive effects Limitations: Mostly animal evidence; the review does not weigh study quality in the abstract. Read: abstract
Palacios 2023 Effectiveness of lactation cookies on human milk production rates: a randomized controlled trial. Am J Clin Nutr · PMID 36921902 · DOI	Controlled trial	176 Exclusively breastfeeding parents of 2-month-olds (51% completed the milk measurement)	Lactation cookies with oatmeal, brewer's yeast, flax and fenugreek seed (in a food) One 56.5 g cookie a day 1 month · vs Ordinary cookies	No difference in milk production or perceived supply. Difference-in-differences -0.33 (SE 4.97) mL/h, p=0.948 Methods, limits and funding Outcomes: Milk production rate, perceived milk shortage, self-efficacy Limitations: Combination product; people who did not have a milk problem; half dropped out. Registration: NCT04805008 Read: abstract
Patil 1997 Allergy to fenugreek (Trigonella foenum graecum). Ann Allergy Asthma Immunol · PMID 9087156 · DOI	Case series	2 Two people with allergy to fenugreek	Fenugreek seed powder (inhaled, eaten, applied to skin) seed · vs Double-blind placebo-controlled challenge	One person had a runny nose, wheezing and fainting after breathing in the powder; the other had facial swelling and wheezing after applying a paste to the scalp. Both reacted to fenugreek and chickpea in testing. Methods, limits and funding Outcomes: Allergic reactions Limitations: Two cases; not a rate. Read: abstract
Pattanittum 2016 Dietary supplements for dysmenorrhoea. Cochrane Database Syst Rev · PMID 27000311 · DOI	Systematic review	3101 27 trials of dietary supplements for painful periods (mostly young students, mostly Iran)	Supplements; fenugreek in one trial seed Various Various · vs Placebo, NSAIDs, others	Every supplement result was low or very low quality. For fenugreek, one trial of 101 women gave "very limited evidence" of benefit. Fenugreek versus placebo: -1.71 points on 0 to 10 scale (-2.35 to -1.07) Methods, limits and funding Outcomes: Pain on a 0 to 10 scale; adverse effects Limitations: Cochrane review; search to March 2015. Only one fenugreek trial. Read: abstract
Pickering 2022 An Exploratory Study of the Safety and Efficacy of a Trigonella foenum-graecum Seed Extract in Early Glucose Dysregulation: A Double-Blind Randomized Placebo-Controlled Trial. Pharmaceutics · PMID 36432644 · DOI	Controlled trial	54 Adults with early glucose problems (prediabetes)	Specialised fenugreek seed extract seed 500 mg a day 12 weeks · vs Matching placebo	Fasting glucose, after-meal glucose and triglycerides differed between groups. HbA1c, insulin, C-peptide, cholesterol and CRP did not. Safety markers were unchanged. Fasting glucose p<0.001; after-meal glucose p=0.007; triglycerides p=0.030; HbA1c p=0.41 Methods, limits and funding Outcomes: Fasting glucose, after-meal glucose, HbA1c, insulin, lipids, safety Limitations: Exploratory, small. Abstract only; the abstract gives p values rather than group means. Funding and conflicts: Authors declare no conflict of interest; funders had no role in design, analysis or publication Read: abstract
Podebrad 1999 4,5-dimethyl-3-hydroxy-2[5H]-furanone (sotolone)--the odour of maple syrup urine disease. J Inherit Metab Dis · PMID 10234605 · DOI	Other	7 Seven people with maple syrup urine disease and healthy controls	n/a (urine analysis) · vs Healthy urine	Sotolone, a flavour compound of fenugreek, was found in urine of patients with maple syrup urine disease and was absent from controls. Methods, limits and funding Outcomes: Source of the maple syrup odour Limitations: Explains why the odours are alike. Read: abstract
Rafraf 2014 Effect of Fenugreek Seeds on Serum Metabolic Factors and Adiponectin Levels in Type 2 Diabetic Patients. Int J Vitam Nutr Res · PMID 26098483 · DOI	Controlled trial	88 Adults with type 2 diabetes	Powdered whole fenugreek seeds seed 10 g a day (placebo 5 g wheat starch) 8 weeks · vs Wheat starch placebo	Fasting glucose, HbA1c, insulin, insulin resistance, total cholesterol and triglycerides fell and adiponectin rose versus placebo. LDL and HDL did not change. Fasting glucose p=0.007; HbA1c p=0.0001; insulin p=0.03; HOMA-IR p=0.004; total cholesterol p=0.005; triglycerides p=0.0001; adiponectin p=0.001 Methods, limits and funding Outcomes: Fasting glucose, HbA1c, insulin, HOMA-IR, lipids, adiponectin Limitations: Abstract only; gives p values only. Single trial in Iran. Read: abstract
Rao 2015 Influence of a Specialized Trigonella foenum-graecum Seed Extract (Libifem), on Testosterone, Estradiol and Sexual Function in Healthy Menstruating Women, a Randomised Placebo Controlled Study. Phytother Res · PMID 25914334 · DOI	Controlled trial	80 Healthy menstruating women aged 20 to 49 with low sexual drive	Libifem, a specialised fenugreek seed extract seed extract 600 mg a day 8 weeks (two cycles) · vs Placebo	Free testosterone and estradiol rose, and sexual desire and arousal improved versus placebo. Methods, limits and funding Outcomes: Sex hormones, sexual desire and arousal questionnaires Limitations: Abstract gives no numbers. Short, single site. The hormone rise in women means other hormone-sensitive conditions need caution. Read: abstract
Rao 2020 The effect of Trigonella foenum-graecum extract on prostate-specific antigen, and prostate function in otherwise healthy men with benign prostate hyperplasia. Phytother Res · PMID 31828857 · DOI	Controlled trial	100 Men aged 45 to 80 with enlarged-prostate symptoms	Standardised fenugreek extract seed extract 600 mg a day 12 weeks · vs Placebo	No improvement in prostate symptoms. Hormones, PSA and safety markers stayed unchanged. No effect on symptoms Methods, limits and funding Outcomes: Prostate symptom score, hormones, PSA, safety Limitations: Abstract only. Read: abstract
Robert 2016 Reduction of postprandial blood glucose in healthy subjects by buns and flatbreads incorporated with fenugreek seed powder. Eur J Nutr · PMID 26358163 · DOI	Controlled trial	10 Healthy adults, crossover	Buns and flatbreads with 10% fenugreek seed powder in place of wheat flour seed 10% of flour Single test meals · vs Same foods with 0% fenugreek; glucose reference	Sugar rise after the meal was lower and glycemic index fell for both foods. Glycemic index of buns 82 to 51; flatbread 63 to 43 (incremental area under curve: buns 227 vs 138; flatbread 174 vs 121 mmol x min/L) Methods, limits and funding Outcomes: Blood sugar after the meal, glycemic index Limitations: Ten healthy people, single meals, finger-prick blood samples. Abstract only. Read: abstract
Rouhi 2025 Investigating the Effectiveness of Fenugreek on the Quantity of Breast Milk and the Level of Prolactin in Mothers of Preterm Newborns: A Randomized Controlled Clinical Trial. Curr Drug Res Rev · PMID 41239794 · DOI	Controlled trial	68 Mothers of preterm babies born before 32 weeks	Fenugreek capsules seed 500 mg three times a day Day 5 to day 14 after delivery · vs Placebo	Milk volume was higher on day 7 but not on day 15; prolactin and newborn weight did not differ. No side effects reported. Milk volume day 7 p=0.017; day 15 p=0.073; prolactin p=0.324 Methods, limits and funding Outcomes: Milk volume, prolactin, infant weight Limitations: Single-country trial; benefit not lasting at day 15. Registration: IRCT20120718010324N62 Read: abstract
Safary 2020 Comparison of the Effects of Fenugreek Vaginal Cream and Ultra Low- Dose Estrogen on Atrophic Vaginitis. Curr Drug Deliv · PMID 32640956 · DOI	Controlled trial	60 Postmenopausal women with vaginal dryness and thinning (atrophic vaginitis)	Fenugreek 5% vaginal cream (applied inside the vagina) seed extract (topical) 0.5 g twice a week 12 weeks · vs Conjugated estrogen vaginal cream	Signs improved but estrogen cream worked significantly better. p=0.001 in favour of estrogen Methods, limits and funding Outcomes: Signs of atrophic vaginitis; vaginal maturation index Limitations: A vaginal cream, not a supplement. Not relevant to oral use. Read: abstract
Sankhwar 2023 Safety and Efficacy of Furosap®, a Patented Trigonella foenum-graecum Seed Extract, in Boosting Testosterone Level, Reproductive Health and Mood Alleviation in Male Volunteers. J Am Nutr Assoc · PMID 34694954 · DOI	Single arm	100 Healthy men aged 35 to 60	Furosap (20% protodioscin fenugreek seed extract) seed extract 500 mg a day 12 weeks	Free and bound testosterone, sperm motility, mood and libido scores improved over 12 weeks; blood pressure and DHEA fell. No adverse events reported. Methods, limits and funding Outcomes: Testosterone, sperm, mood, blood chemistry Limitations: No control group and not blinded. Funding and conflicts: Patented branded extract (Furosap) from the same developer group as the 2017 paper; competing-interest statement for this paper not read Read: abstract
Sankhwar 2023 Beneficial Effects of a Novel Fenugreek Seed Extract (Trigonella foenum-graecum, Furocyst®) in Women with Polycystic Ovary Syndrome (PCOS): A Follow-up Compliance Clinical Investigation. J Am Nutr Assoc · PMID 36441141 · DOI	Single arm	107 Women with polycystic ovary syndrome	Furocyst, a fenugreek seed extract seed extract 1000 mg a day 12 weeks	Reported more than 40% smaller cysts and regular cycles. Methods, limits and funding Outcomes: Cysts, hormones, cycles Limitations: No control group. Follow-up of the branded product. Funding and conflicts: Patented branded extract (Furocyst) from the same developer group; competing-interest statement not read Read: abstract
Sauvaire 1998 4-Hydroxyisoleucine: a novel amino acid potentiator of insulin secretion. Diabetes · PMID 9519714 · DOI	Laboratory research in-vitro	Isolated pancreatic islets from rats and humans; perfused rat pancreas	4-hydroxyisoleucine purified from fenugreek seed seed 100 micromol/l to 1 mmol/l Acute · vs Lower glucose	The amino acid increased insulin release only at high glucose levels. Methods, limits and funding Outcomes: Insulin release Limitations: Laboratory study; not a human treatment trial. Read: abstract
Shabil 2023 Effect of Fenugreek on Hyperglycemia: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Medicina (Kaunas) · PMID 36837450 · DOI	Meta-analysis	894 Participants in 14 trials of fenugreek versus control	Fenugreek (various) seed Various Various · vs Control groups	Only HbA1c showed a clear fall. Fasting and after-meal glucose were not clearly changed in the pooled numbers. The authors flag low study quality and big differences between trials. HbA1c MD -0.88; fasting glucose MD 3.70 (as printed); postprandial glucose MD -10.61 (HbA1c -1.49 to -0.27; fasting -27.02 to 19.62 (p 0.76); postprandial -68.48 to 47.26 (p 0.72)) Methods, limits and funding Outcomes: Fasting glucose, postprandial glucose, HbA1c Limitations: Abstract only. The abstract describes the fasting result as a reduction but prints a positive mean difference of 3.70 with a confidence interval that crosses zero; we report the numbers as printed and do not treat fasting glucose as shown by this review. Funding and conflicts: Authors declare no conflict of interest Read: abstract
Shamshad Begum 2016 A Novel Extract of Fenugreek Husk (FenuSMART™) Alleviates Postmenopausal Symptoms and Helps to Establish the Hormonal Balance: A Randomized, Double-Blind, Placebo-Controlled Study. Phytother Res · PMID 27406028 · DOI	Controlled trial	88 Women with moderate to severe postmenopausal complaints	Fenugreek husk extract (FenuSMART) seed husk extract 1000 mg a day 90 days · vs Placebo	Plasma estradiol rose by 120% and symptoms improved; 32% reported no hot flashes after treatment. Estradiol +120% Methods, limits and funding Outcomes: Plasma estrogens, Greene scale, SF-36 Limitations: A big rise in estradiol is a hormone effect, so use by women with hormone-sensitive cancer or conditions is a question for a doctor. Read: abstract
Sharma 1990 Effect of fenugreek seeds on blood glucose and serum lipids in type I diabetes. Eur J Clin Nutr · PMID 2194788	Controlled trial	People with insulin-dependent (type 1) diabetes	Defatted fenugreek seed powder in the diet seed 100 g per day, in two equal doses at lunch and dinner 10 days each diet (crossover) · vs Same diet without fenugreek	Fasting sugar, glucose tolerance, urine sugar loss, total cholesterol, LDL, VLDL and triglycerides improved; HDL did not change. 24-hour urine glucose down 54% Methods, limits and funding Outcomes: Fasting blood sugar, glucose tolerance, urine glucose, lipids Limitations: The amount (100 g a day) is a very large food-level dose. Short, small study from 1990; abstract only. Read: abstract
Singh 2023 Efficacy of a Proprietary Fenugreek Seed Extract (Trigonella foenum-graecum, Furocyst®) in Women with Polycystic Ovary Syndrome (PCOS): a Randomized, Double-Blind, Placebo-Controlled Study. J Am Nutr Assoc · PMID 36219198 · DOI	Controlled trial	208 Premenopausal women with polycystic ovary syndrome	Furocyst, a fenugreek seed extract seed extract 1000 mg a day (2 x 500 mg) · vs Placebo	Reported fewer cysts, smaller ovaries, less hirsutism and lower fasting glucose and lipids, and lower free testosterone. Methods, limits and funding Outcomes: Cysts, ovarian volume, hirsutism, hormones, glucose and lipids Limitations: Abstract gives no numbers. Patented branded product. Funding and conflicts: Patented branded extract (Furocyst) from the same developer group as the 2015 paper; competing-interest statement not read Read: abstract
Smith 2021 Examining the Effects of Herbs on Testosterone Concentrations in Men: A Systematic Review. Adv Nutr · PMID 33150931 · DOI	Systematic review	Men in 32 studies of 13 herbs	Single herbal ingredients including fenugreek seed extracts seed extract Various Various · vs Placebo or control	Fenugreek seed extracts and ashwagandha were the two herbs with positive effects on testosterone; 9 of 32 studies overall were significant and only 6 of 32 had low risk of bias. Methods, limits and funding Outcomes: Testosterone and related hormones Limitations: Abstract only. Most participants were young and healthy; doses and extracts varied. Registration: PROSPERO CRD42020173623 Read: abstract
Steels 2011 Physiological aspects of male libido enhanced by standardized Trigonella foenum-graecum extract and mineral formulation. Phytother Res · PMID 21312304 · DOI	Controlled trial	60 Healthy men aged 25 to 52 without erectile problems	Testofen (fenugreek extract plus minerals) seed extract 600 mg a day 6 weeks · vs Placebo	Sexual arousal and orgasm scores improved. Mood and sleep did not change. Testosterone and prolactin stayed in the normal range. Methods, limits and funding Outcomes: Libido questionnaire (DISF-SR), quality of life, hormones Limitations: Testofen is a fenugreek extract plus minerals (a combination product). Abstract only; the abstract gives no numbers. Read: abstract
Steels 2017 Efficacy of a Proprietary Trigonella foenum-graecum L. De-Husked Seed Extract in Reducing Menopausal Symptoms in Otherwise Healthy Women: A Double-Blind, Randomized, Placebo-Controlled Study. Phytother Res · PMID 28707431 · DOI	Controlled trial	115 Healthy women aged 40 to 65 with menopausal symptoms	Proprietary de-husked fenugreek seed extract seed extract 600 mg a day 12 weeks · vs Placebo	Menopause symptom scores and hot flushes and night sweats improved. Estradiol did not differ between groups. Total MENQOL p<0.001 Methods, limits and funding Outcomes: Menopause quality of life score, hot flushes, night sweats, estradiol Limitations: Abstract only; no numbers. A proprietary extract, so it may not apply to other products. Read: abstract
Suksomboon 2011 Meta-analysis of the effect of herbal supplement on glycemic control in type 2 diabetes. J Ethnopharmacol · PMID 21843614 · DOI	Meta-analysis	487 Adults with type 2 diabetes in 9 placebo-controlled trials of at least 8 weeks (several herbs)	Single-herb supplements including Trigonella foenum-graecum seed Various At least 8 weeks · vs Placebo	Fenugreek lowered HbA1c versus placebo, with a very wide range and high disagreement between trials. HbA1c -1.13% for fenugreek (95% CI -0.11% to -2.14%) Methods, limits and funding Outcomes: HbA1c, fasting glucose Limitations: Abstract only. Few fenugreek trials; authors note high heterogeneity and need for standardized preparations. Read: abstract
Sun 2021 Fenugreek Cultivation with Emphasis on Historical Aspects and its uses in Traditional Medicine and Modern Pharmaceutical Science. Mini Rev Med Chem · PMID 33245271 · DOI	Other	Narrative review	Fenugreek seed, leaf	Describes fenugreek as native from Iran to northern India and used in traditional medicine in Iran, India and China. Methods, limits and funding Outcomes: History and uses Limitations: Narrative review; claims about history not independently verified. Read: abstract
Swaroop 2015 Efficacy of a Novel Fenugreek Seed Extract (Trigonella foenum-graecum, Furocyst) in Polycystic Ovary Syndrome (PCOS). Int J Med Sci · PMID 26516311 · DOI	Single arm	50 Premenopausal women with polycystic ovary syndrome	Furocyst, a fenugreek seed extract (about 40% furostanol saponins) seed extract 1000 mg a day (2 x 500 mg) 90 days	Ovary volume fell; cysts shrank in about 46% and disappeared in 36%; 71% reported regular periods. 71% reported return of regular cycle Methods, limits and funding Outcomes: Ovary volume, cysts, cycles Limitations: No control group. Industry-linked. Funding and conflicts: Industry-linked: authors from Cepham Research Center, which developed the extract Read: abstract
Turkyılmaz 2011 The effect of galactagogue herbal tea on breast milk production and short-term catch-up of birth weight in the first week of life. J Altern Complement Med · PMID 21261516 · DOI	Controlled trial	66 Mothers of newborns, three groups (tea, placebo, no treatment)	Herbal tea containing fenugreek (a herbal mixture) seed Tea each day (amount not stated in abstract) First days after delivery (milk measured on day 3) · vs Placebo and no-treatment groups	Milk volume was higher and infants regained birth weight earlier in the tea group. p<0.05 for milk volume and weight regain Methods, limits and funding Outcomes: Milk volume, infant weight loss and regain Limitations: The tea contained fenugreek among other ingredients (not fully listed in the abstract). Small; first days only. Read: abstract
Wagner 2019 The Safety of Mother's Milk® Tea: Results of a Randomized Double-Blind, Controlled Study in Fully Breastfeeding Mothers and Their Infants. J Hum Lact · PMID 30005170 · DOI	Controlled trial	60 Fully breastfeeding mothers with no milk shortage	Mother's Milk tea (fennel, anise, coriander, fenugreek seed and others) seed + other herbs Tea (amount not stated in abstract) 30 days, plus follow-up to the infant's first year · vs Lemon verbena leaf placebo tea	No adverse effects attributable to the tea were reported; no differences in infant growth. No difference between groups Methods, limits and funding Outcomes: Maternal and infant adverse effects Limitations: A multi-herb tea, 60 mothers. Whether the commercial maker funded it is not stated in the abstract. Read: abstract
Wankhede 2016 Beneficial effects of fenugreek glycoside supplementation in male subjects during resistance training: A randomized controlled pilot study. J Sport Health Sci · PMID 30356905 · DOI	Controlled trial	60 Healthy men in an 8-week resistance training programme	Fenu-FG (glycoside fraction of fenugreek seed) seed extract 300 mg twice a day 8 weeks · vs Placebo	Reported better testosterone and body fat without loss of strength; well tolerated. Methods, limits and funding Outcomes: Testosterone, strength, body fat, safety Limitations: Pilot study. The abstract gives no numbers. The journal published an erratum. Abstract only. Read: abstract
Weiser 2013 Trace-back and trace-forward tools developed ad hoc and used during the STEC O104:H4 outbreak 2011 in Germany and generic concepts for future outbreak situations. Foodborne Pathog Dis · PMID 23268760 · DOI	Other	Trace-back of the 2011 German E. coli O104:H4 outbreak	Sprouts and seeds sprouts, seeds	Trace-back pointed to sprouts from one German farm and to a specific lot of fenugreek seeds imported from Egypt as the most likely source of contamination. Methods, limits and funding Outcomes: Source of contamination Limitations: Trace-back analysis; the strain was not confirmed on the seeds in the paper by Buchholz et al. Read: abstract
Yang 2026 Effects of oral fenugreek-derived preparations on testosterone-related outcomes in adult men: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized placebo-controlled trials. Front Nutr · PMID 42688439 · DOI	Meta-analysis	Adult men; 13 randomized placebo-controlled trials (6 in the total testosterone analysis, 5 for free testosterone)	Oral fenugreek-derived preparations seed extract Various Various · vs Placebo	A small favourable effect on total testosterone; free testosterone not clearly changed. None of the 13 trials was low risk of bias. The authors rate certainty very low and say it does not support testosterone-boosting claims. Total testosterone SMD 0.25; free testosterone SMD 0.08 (not significant) (Total 0.02 to 0.48 (I2 0%); free -0.48 to 0.63 (I2 66.7%)) Methods, limits and funding Outcomes: Total and free testosterone, sexual function, body composition, safety Limitations: Abstract only. Uses GRADE (very low certainty). Registered PROSPERO CRD420261364708. Funding and conflicts: Authors declare no commercial or financial relationships Registration: PROSPERO CRD420261364708 Read: abstract
Younesy 2014 Effects of fenugreek seed on the severity and systemic symptoms of dysmenorrhea. J Reprod Infertil · PMID 24695380	Controlled trial	101 Unmarried students with painful periods	Fenugreek seed powder capsules seed 900 mg per capsule, 2 to 3 capsules, three times a day, first 3 days of period 2 cycles · vs Placebo	Pain fell more with fenugreek than placebo; the duration of pain and symptoms like fatigue and nausea also eased. No side effects reported. Larger pain reduction versus placebo, p<0.001 Methods, limits and funding Outcomes: Pain on a visual scale, duration of pain, other symptoms Limitations: Young students, one centre. Read: abstract
s-ema-fenugreek-final-2021 EMA/HMPC opinion on revised fenugreek monograph, adopted 24 November 2021 (EMA/HMPC/755473/2021) · Source	Authoritative guidance n/a			Methods, limits and funding Read: summary-only
s-ema-hmpc-fenugreek-draft EMA/HMPC European Union herbal monograph on Trigonella foenum-graecum L., semen, Draft - Revision 1 (EMA/HMPC/179591/2018), 3 March 2021 · Source	Authoritative guidance n/a			Methods, limits and funding Read: full-text
s-gbif-trigonella-foenum-graecum GBIF Backbone: Trigonella foenum-graecum L. (usageKey 5360475) · Source	Reference database n/a			Methods, limits and funding Read: full-text
s-livertox-fenugreek LiverTox: Fenugreek (NCBI Bookshelf) · Source	Authoritative guidance n/a			Methods, limits and funding Read: summary-only
s-ncbi-taxonomy-trigonella-foenum-graecum NCBI Taxonomy: Trigonella foenum-graecum (taxid 78534) · Source	Reference database n/a			Methods, limits and funding Read: full-text
s-nccih-fenugreek NCCIH: Fenugreek · Source	Authoritative guidance n/a			Methods, limits and funding Read: full-text
s-pubchem-dimethylpyrazine PubChem: 2,5-dimethylpyrazine (CID 31252, C6H8N2) · Source	Reference database n/a			Methods, limits and funding Read: full-text
s-pubchem-fenugreek-compounds PubChem compound records: diosgenin (CID 99474), trigonelline (5570), 4-hydroxyisoleucine (2773624), sotolone (62835), protodioscin (441891), yamogenin (441900) · Source	Reference database n/a			Methods, limits and funding Read: full-text

What we do not know yet

What the evidence supports: nothing is rated above low. Type 2 diabetes blood sugar, cholesterol, after-meal sugar from foods, menstrual pain, menopause symptoms and male libido are low; testosterone, milk supply, blood pressure and several others are very low; insulin resistance is mixed; weight is against; fatty liver, type 1 diabetes, prostate symptoms and brain conditions are insufficient.
What is uncertain: most trials are small, short, of low quality and use very different products (whole seed, extracts, fibre, mixtures), so results cannot be moved between products. Many extract trials come from the product developers or are open-label. Pooled analyses disagree on fasting blood sugar and LDL.
What has never been tested: whether fenugreek prevents diabetes complications, heart attacks or fractures; trials in men with confirmed low testosterone; any human trial of the leaf; fenugreek with aspirin or newer blood thinners; long-term safety of extracts; safety in pregnancy in people; and contamination of supplements with metals or pesticides.
What we could not verify: LiverTox (the page could not be opened), the final adopted EU monograph of November 2021 (the March 2021 draft was read in full), the German Commission E and WHO statements, and the FDA position known only through LactMed. LactMed's own cited references were not read.
Almost all studies were read as abstracts only, and several abstracts give no numbers or print them inconsistently, so we report only what they state.

How new research is added

New studies are found by a saved PubMed search and are placed in a review queue. A person reads each one before it changes any evidence rating or safety wording. New publications never change ratings automatically.

Lab markers

What changed in blood or saliva tests during trials. A changed number is not the same as feeling or being healthier, and we give no "normal ranges".

Hormonal 4

▲

Total testosterone (men)

Raised in trials

The testosterone carried in blood, bound and unbound.

Very low certainty

Results and what it means

Why it was measured

Main outcome of fenugreek testosterone trials.

Statistical vs. clinical meaning

Statistically clear in two analyses but small; the 2026 analysis rates certainty very low.

Safety implication

Raised testosterone in men can affect blood thickness and hormone-sensitive conditions.

Study	Result	People	Product
⁹²	SMD 0.25 (0.02 to 0.48), 6 trials	Adult men	Fenugreek-derived preparations
⁴⁰	SMD 0.32 (0.09 to 0.55)	7 studies, 449 people	Fenugreek extracts
⁵¹	+9.0% vs placebo (p=0.122), not significant; +13.0% vs baseline	95 men aged 40 to 80	Extract plus nutrients, 12 weeks

^{92 40 51}

↕

Free testosterone (men)

Mixed results in trials

The unbound testosterone available to tissues.

Very low certainty

Results and what it means

Why it was measured

Main outcome of trials.

Statistical vs. clinical meaning

Pooled results are not significant and disagree.

Safety implication

None.

Study	Result	People	Product
⁹²	SMD 0.08 (-0.48 to 0.63), I2 66.7%	Adult men	Fenugreek-derived preparations
⁴⁰	SMD 0.24 (-0.04 to 0.52)	7 studies	Fenugreek extracts
⁵¹	Saliva testosterone +37.2% vs placebo (p=0.042)	95 men	Extract plus nutrients

^{92 40 51}

↕

Estradiol (women)

Mixed results in trials

The main estrogen.

Low certainty

Results and what it means

Why it was measured

Measured to see hormone effects in women.

Statistical vs. clinical meaning

Direction varies between extracts.

Safety implication

A rise in estradiol matters for women with hormone-sensitive cancers or conditions.

Study	Result	People	Product
⁷⁹	+120% vs baseline and placebo	88 postmenopausal women	Husk extract 1000 mg a day
⁴⁴	+18.9%	48 perimenopausal women	Extract 250 mg twice a day
⁸⁴	No difference from placebo	115 women	De-husked extract 600 mg a day
⁷⁰	Increased vs placebo	80 menstruating women	Libifem 600 mg a day

^{79 44 84 70}

●

Prolactin

No clear change in trials

The hormone that triggers milk production.

Low certainty

Results and what it means

Why it was measured

Tested as a way fenugreek might raise milk.

Statistical vs. clinical meaning

No effect found in the trials that measured it.

Safety implication

None.

Study	Result	People	Product
⁷³	No difference (p=0.324)	68 mothers of preterm babies	500 mg three times a day, 10 days
⁸³	Remained in reference range	60 men	Testofen 600 mg a day

^{73 83}

Metabolic 6

▼

Fasting blood glucose

Lowered in trials

The sugar level in blood after not eating overnight.

Low certainty

Results and what it means

Why it was measured

Main blood sugar measure in fenugreek trials.

Statistical vs. clinical meaning

Average falls of about 15 to 20 mg/dL in several analyses are statistically clear, but disagreement between trials is high and one analysis found no clear fall. A lab change does not show fewer diabetes complications.

Safety implication

May add to the blood-sugar-lowering of diabetes drugs.

Study	Result	People	Product
⁶¹	-0.96 mmol/l (95% CI -1.52 to -0.40), 10 trials, I2 80%	Adults, mostly with diabetes	Fenugreek seed products
³¹	-0.84 mmol/L (-1.38 to -0.31)	Diabetes or prediabetes, 10 articles	Fenugreek
⁴⁵	-12.94 mg/dL (-21.39 to -4.49)	Adults, 12 articles	Fenugreek seed versus placebo
²⁵	-16.75 mg/dL (-23.36 to -10.15)	Adults, 29 trials	Fenugreek supplementation
⁷⁸	Mean difference printed as 3.70 (CI -27.02 to 19.62), not a clear fall	Participants in 14 trials	Fenugreek

^{61 31 45 25 78}

▼

HbA1c (average blood sugar over about 3 months)

Lowered in trials

A blood test that reflects average blood sugar over roughly the last three months.

Low certainty

Results and what it means

Why it was measured

Shows longer-term blood sugar control.

Statistical vs. clinical meaning

A fall of 0.6 to 0.9 points would matter if real, but it comes from few trials of mixed quality, and the real size is uncertain. NCCIH says evidence is not strong enough.

Safety implication

Can add to diabetes drugs; low blood sugar is possible.

Study	Result	People	Product
⁶¹	-0.85 percentage points (-1.49 to -0.22), 3 trials	People with diabetes	Fenugreek seed
⁷⁸	-0.88 (-1.49 to -0.27), 14 trials	Participants in 14 trials	Fenugreek
⁴⁵	-0.58 (-0.99 to -0.17)	Adults, 12 articles	Fenugreek seed versus placebo
⁸⁵	-1.13% (-2.14% to -0.11%)	Type 2 diabetes, 9 trials of several herbs	Fenugreek
⁶⁷	No difference (p=0.41)	54 adults with prediabetes	500 mg a day extract, 12 weeks

^{61 78 45 85 67}

▼

Total cholesterol

Lowered in trials

All the cholesterol carried in blood.

Low certainty

Results and what it means

Why it was measured

A routine heart-risk blood test.

Statistical vs. clinical meaning

A drop of about 9 mg/dL is small. It is a lab marker, not proof of fewer heart attacks.

Safety implication

None.

Study	Result	People	Product
⁸	-9.4 mg/dL (-15.4 to -3.3), 12 trials	Adults, 560 people	Fenugreek
⁴⁵	-9.13 mg/dL (-13.83 to -4.43)	Adults	Fenugreek seed
³¹	-0.30 mmol/L (-0.56 to -0.03)	Diabetes or prediabetes	Fenugreek
⁶⁷	No difference (p=0.99)	54 adults with prediabetes	Extract 500 mg a day

^{8 45 31 67}

▼

LDL cholesterol

Lowered in trials

The so-called bad cholesterol carried in LDL particles.

Low certainty

Results and what it means

Why it was measured

A main heart-risk marker.

Statistical vs. clinical meaning

Two analyses show a small fall, two find none; the interval nearly includes zero in one.

Safety implication

None.

Study	Result	People	Product
⁸	-6.6 mg/dL (-13.0 to -0.1)	Adults, 560 people	Fenugreek
⁴⁵	-11.11 mg/dL (-20.32 to -1.90)	Adults	Fenugreek seed
⁴⁶	LDL not significantly changed	10 trials	Fenugreek
³¹	LDL not significant	Diabetes or prediabetes	Fenugreek

^{8 45 46 31}

▲

HDL cholesterol

Raised in trials

The so-called good cholesterol.

Low certainty

Results and what it means

Why it was measured

A heart-risk marker.

Statistical vs. clinical meaning

Small rise in two analyses; a single trial found none.

Safety implication

None.

Study	Result	People	Product
⁸	+3.5 mg/dL (1.3 to 5.7)	Adults, 560 people	Fenugreek
²⁵	+3.55 mg/dL (1.98 to 5.12)	Adults, 29 trials	Fenugreek
⁶⁹	No significant change	88 adults with type 2 diabetes	10 g a day whole seed

^{8 25 69}

▼

Triglycerides

Lowered in trials

Fat carried in the blood.

Low certainty

Results and what it means

Why it was measured

High levels are linked to heart and metabolic risk.

Statistical vs. clinical meaning

Consistent but modest.

Safety implication

None.

Study	Result	People	Product
⁸	-13.8 mg/dL (-26.6 to -0.9)	Adults, 560 people	Fenugreek
²⁵	-20.12 mg/dL (-34.24 to -5.99)	Adults, 29 trials	Fenugreek
⁶⁷	Lower than placebo (p=0.030)	54 adults with prediabetes	Extract 500 mg a day
³¹	Not clearly lower	Diabetes or prediabetes	Fenugreek

^{8 25 67 31}

Other 13

▼

Two-hour glucose after a sugar drink or meal

Lowered in trials

Blood sugar two hours after a glucose drink or meal.

Low certainty

Results and what it means

Why it was measured

Shows how well the body handles a sugar load.

Statistical vs. clinical meaning

Mixed: two analyses were positive, one was not; food trials are tiny.

Safety implication

None specific.

Study	Result	People	Product
⁶¹	-2.19 mmol/l (-3.19 to -1.19), 7 trials	Mostly people with diabetes	Fenugreek seed
³¹	-1.30 mmol/L (-1.78 to -0.83)	Diabetes or prediabetes	Fenugreek
⁷⁸	Postprandial MD -10.61 (-68.48 to 47.26), not clear	Participants in 14 trials	Fenugreek
⁷²	Glycemic index of buns 82 to 51, flatbread 63 to 43	10 healthy adults	10% fenugreek seed powder in baked goods
²²	24-hour iAUC lower (p=0.02)	15 adults with type 2 diabetes	30 g a day of flakes for 14 days

^{61 31 78 72 22}

↕

Fasting insulin and HOMA-IR

Mixed results in trials

Insulin level and a calculated score (HOMA-IR) of how resistant the body is to insulin.

Mixed findings

Results and what it means

Why it was measured

Insulin resistance is a core problem in type 2 diabetes.

Statistical vs. clinical meaning

Trials point in different directions.

Safety implication

None.

Study	Result	People	Product
⁴⁶	HOMA-IR not significantly lower	10 trials, 706 people	Fenugreek
⁶⁹	Insulin p=0.03 and HOMA-IR p=0.004 lower	88 adults with type 2 diabetes	10 g a day whole seed, 8 weeks
⁵⁹	Insulin rose (p=0.04)	9 finishers	2 g a day
⁶⁷	Fasting insulin p=0.12 (no change)	54 adults with prediabetes	500 mg a day extract

^{46 69 59 67}

▼

Systolic blood pressure (top number)

Lowered in trials

The pressure when the heart beats.

Very low certainty

Results and what it means

Why it was measured

A key heart and stroke risk marker.

Statistical vs. clinical meaning

The fall is small and statistically borderline.

Safety implication

Do not change blood pressure drugs.

Study	Result	People	Product
⁶	About 3.5 mmHg lower (CI -6.33 to -0.59), 6 trials	Adults, 373 people	Fenugreek seed
²⁵	-3.45 mmHg (-6.38 to -0.52)	Adults, 29 trials	Fenugreek

^{6 25}

●

Diastolic blood pressure (bottom number)

No clear change in trials

The pressure between heartbeats.

Low certainty

Results and what it means

Why it was measured

A key risk marker.

Statistical vs. clinical meaning

Both analyses found no clear change.

Safety implication

None.

Study	Result	People	Product
⁶	Not significant (CI -5.82 to 12.21)	Adults, 373 people	Fenugreek seed
²⁵	Not significant (CI -5.40 to 11.73)	Adults, 29 trials	Fenugreek

^{6 25}

●

Body weight and BMI

No clear change in trials

Weight and weight-for-height.

Low certainty

Results and what it means

Why it was measured

Used to judge weight loss.

Statistical vs. clinical meaning

Two analyses found no change.

Safety implication

None.

Study	Result	People	Product
⁸	Weight +0.223 kg (-0.509 to 0.955); BMI +0.091 (-0.244 to 0.426)	Adults, 560 people	Fenugreek
²⁵	BMI -0.40 kg/m2 (-1.11 to 0.32), not significant	Adults, 29 trials	Fenugreek

^{8 25}

▼

Waist circumference

Lowered in trials

The distance around the waist.

Very low certainty

Results and what it means

Why it was measured

Linked to belly fat and metabolic risk.

Statistical vs. clinical meaning

Only one analysis; unit not stated in the abstract.

Safety implication

None.

Study	Result	People	Product
²⁵	-2.51 (-3.78 to -1.24)	Adults, 29 trials	Fenugreek

²⁵

▲

Breast milk volume

Raised in trials

The amount of milk produced.

Very low certainty

Results and what it means

Why it was measured

The outcome mothers care about.

Statistical vs. clinical meaning

Mixed results, mixed products.

Safety implication

See safety file.

Study	Result	People	Product
⁷³	Higher on day 7 (p=0.017), not day 15 (p=0.073)	68 mothers	Fenugreek capsules
⁸⁸	Higher with tea (p<0.05)	66 mothers	Herbal tea with fenugreek
¹⁵	+49% at week 2, +103% at week 4	50 mothers	Fenugreek-ginger-turmeric mixture
⁶⁴	Difference-in-differences -0.33 mL/h (p=0.948)	176 parents	Cookies with fenugreek

^{73 88 15 64}

●

PSA (prostate-specific antigen)

No clear change in trials

A blood protein that can rise with prostate problems.

Low certainty

Results and what it means

Why it was measured

A safety check in the prostate trial.

Statistical vs. clinical meaning

One trial.

Safety implication

None.

Study	Result	People	Product
⁷¹	Unchanged	100 men with prostate enlargement	Extract 600 mg a day, 12 weeks

⁷¹

▼

Period pain score (0 to 10)

Lowered in trials

Pain rated by the woman on a scale.

Low certainty

Results and what it means

Why it was measured

The outcome women care about.

Statistical vs. clinical meaning

A drop of about 1.7 points on 0 to 10 would be noticeable if real; GRADE low.

Safety implication

None.

Study	Result	People	Product
³⁴	SMD -2.21 (-3.26 to -1.17) vs placebo	4 articles	Fenugreek seed
⁶⁶	-1.71 points (-2.35 to -1.07), one trial of 101 women	Cochrane review	Fenugreek seed
³⁹	Pain down 66.89% (fenugreek) vs 62.88% (mefenamic acid)	60 women	3 g twice a day

^{34 66 39}

▼

Menopause symptom scores and hot flushes

Lowered in trials

Questionnaire scores and counts of hot flushes and night sweats.

Low certainty

Results and what it means

Why it was measured

Main outcome of menopause trials.

Statistical vs. clinical meaning

Direction consistent but products and scales differ.

Safety implication

See hormone note.

Study	Result	People	Product
⁸⁴	Total MENQOL p<0.001 vs placebo	115 women	600 mg a day, 12 weeks
⁴⁴	Hot flashes -25.9%; night sweats -26.5%	48 women	250 mg twice a day, 42 days
⁷⁹	32% reported no hot flashes after supplementation	88 women	1000 mg a day, 90 days

^{84 44 79}

↕

Lean body mass, fat mass and leg press

Mixed results in trials

Muscle mass proxy, body fat and a strength test.

Very low certainty

Results and what it means

Why it was measured

Used in athletic trials.

Statistical vs. clinical meaning

Intervals include zero.

Safety implication

None.

Study	Result	People	Product
⁴⁰	Lean mass SMD 0.19 (-0.10 to 0.49); fat mass -0.19 (-0.44 to 0.05); leg press 0.22 (-0.02 to 0.47)	7 studies	Fenugreek extracts

⁴⁰

▲

Libido and sexual function scores

Raised in trials

Questionnaire scores of desire and arousal.

Low certainty

Results and what it means

Why it was measured

Self-reported outcome.

Statistical vs. clinical meaning

Two small trials of branded extracts.

Safety implication

None.

Study	Result	People	Product
⁸³	Arousal and orgasm domains significantly higher than placebo	60 men aged 25 to 52	Testofen 600 mg a day, 6 weeks
⁷⁰	Desire and arousal higher than placebo	80 women	Libifem 600 mg a day, 8 weeks

^{83 70}

↕

Fullness and fat intake

Mixed results in trials

Fullness scores from questionnaires and fat eaten.

Very low certainty

Results and what it means

Why it was measured

Tested for weight control.

Statistical vs. clinical meaning

Tiny short trials.

Safety implication

None.

Study	Result	People	Product
⁵⁵	8 g fibre raised fullness (p<0.05); lunch intake not significantly lower than control	18 obese adults	Isolated fibre
¹⁸	Fat intake -17.3% at higher dose (p=0.038)	12 healthy men	1176 mg a day extract
¹⁹	Fat intake ratio 0.26 vs 0.30 (p=0.032); appetite scores unchanged	39 overweight men	Extract, 6 weeks

^{55 18 19}

Safety

What studies and official sources say about side effects, medicines and who should check first. Each point shows what kind of evidence it comes from.

Main points to know 9

Fenugreek can make sweat, urine and breath smell of maple syrup, and can cause a false alarm for a rare newborn disease. Fenugreek by mouth can give urine, sweat and skin a maple-syrup smell. This is harmless in itself. But the same smell is the sign of maple syrup urine disease, a rare inherited illness of newborns. Mothers who took fenugreek during labour had newborns who smelled of maple syrup, which led to a false suspicion of the disease. The lab compound sotolone is shared by fenugreek and by the urine of patients with the disease. A mother taking fenugreek, or a baby of a mother who took it, should tell doctors and nurses so the smell is not misread; and a baby who is unwell should always be seen, whatever the smell. A separate study of armpit sweat found other compounds (such as 2,5-dimethylpyrazine) appeared after fenugreek and gave the best-matching smell. Case report ^{48 11 57 68 56 7 27 1}
It may lower blood sugar, and can add to diabetes medicines. Fenugreek seed products can lower blood sugar. The EU herbal monograph (draft Revision 1) says close monitoring of blood sugar control should be considered in people treated for diabetes. NCCIH says large amounts may cause a harmful drop in blood sugar, and LactMed advises caution at high doses in women with diabetes. Trials in people on metformin or sulfonylureas did not report severe lows in their abstracts, but they were small. A scoping review of 60 articles lists hypoglycemia among reported effects. People on insulin or diabetes pills should not add fenugreek without telling their doctor, and should know the signs of low blood sugar. Authoritative guidance ^{95 99 1 7 38 33}
Do not use medicinal amounts in pregnancy. The EU monograph says use in pregnancy, in breastfeeding and in women who could become pregnant and are not using contraception is not recommended: animal studies show reproductive toxicity, including effects on male and female fertility. NCCIH says fenugreek is not safe in pregnancy in amounts larger than found in food and that use has been linked to a higher risk of birth defects. A toxicology review (mostly animal data) reports birth defects, embryo loss and anti-implantation or abortion-causing activity in animals and advises against use in pregnancy. We found no controlled human study of fenugreek in pregnancy. Culinary amounts are different from medicinal amounts. Authoritative guidance ^{95 99 63}
Allergy: people with peanut, soya, chickpea or other legume allergy can react, sometimes severely. Fenugreek is a legume. Proteins in it resemble major peanut allergens (Ara h 1 and Ara h 3), and most blood samples from peanut-allergic patients in one study also showed IgE to fenugreek, so cross-reaction is likely. Case reports describe wheezing, fainting, facial swelling, anaphylaxis (including in a child) and, in one new mother, toxic epidermal necrolysis, a severe blistering skin reaction. The EU monograph lists hypersensitivity to fenugreek, peanut, soya and other legumes as a contraindication. In one challenge about 2 mg of fenugreek powder produced objective symptoms. Allergic reactions have been reported after skin use and after inhaling the powder. Authoritative guidance ^{95 65 42 9 17 23 24 12}
Blood thinners: a possible increase in bleeding with warfarin. One woman on warfarin had a rise in her INR (blood-thinning level) that fell when she stopped boldo and fenugreek and rose again when both were restarted; the authors rated the link probable but two herbs were involved. Reviews list fenugreek among herbs that may add to warfarin, but note that most such information is from single cases, lab work or animals. People on warfarin or other blood thinners should tell their prescriber before using fenugreek. Case report ^{50 36 41 16}
Stomach and gut upset is the most common side effect. Wind, diarrhoea and nausea are the most common effects. The EU monograph lists flatulence, diarrhoea and dizziness with frequency not known, and reports that 25 to 100 g a day of seed powder caused minor stomach and gut symptoms in 4 of 10 cases. A scoping review of 60 articles found mild gut upset the most common effect and attributed no deaths to fenugreek. Authoritative guidance ^{95 7 31 46}
Breastfeeding and babies. Fenugreek is a common milk-booster, but LactMed says limited safety data exist for mothers and infants. In the Cochrane review, side effects reported included urine that smelled of maple syrup and hives in infants. LactMed lists diarrhoea, allergic reactions, asthma worsening and, in single mothers, a fast heart rate, breast congestion and skin necrolysis, and notes a survey where 45% of 85 mothers who used fenugreek reported an adverse reaction. The EU monograph says use in lactation is not recommended and that use under 18 has not been established because of lack of safety data. Talk to a lactation consultant and doctor first; milk supply problems need checking of latch and feeding frequency. Authoritative guidance ^{95 1 27 12}
Hormone-active extracts: caution with hormone-sensitive conditions, and with testosterone-booster blends. Some fenugreek extract trials in women found rises in estradiol (+120% in one, +18.9% in another) and in free testosterone. Anyone with a hormone-sensitive cancer or condition should ask an oncologist or doctor first. Two case reports describe lung blood clots (pulmonary embolism) in men taking fenugreek-containing testosterone-booster supplements; the products were mixtures and cause was not proven. Case report ^{79 44 70 4 62}
Raw fenugreek sprouts have been linked to an E. coli outbreak. The 2011 German E. coli O104:H4 outbreak was traced to sprouts from one farm, and trace-back pointed to a lot of fenugreek seeds imported from Egypt as the most likely source of contamination, though the outbreak strain was not found on seeds in the main epidemiology paper. Seeds used for sprouting can carry harmful germs. Pregnant women, young children, older adults and people with weak immunity should avoid raw sprouts. Other ^{91 14}

Side effects 10

Effect	How often	Severity and recovery	Evidence
Stomach and gut upset (wind, diarrhoea, nausea) In the scoping review of 60 articles, 14 trials reported adverse effects, 23 reported none and 13 did not say.	EU monograph: frequency not known for flatulence and diarrhoea; at 25 to 100 g a day of seed powder, minor gut symptoms in 4 of 10 cases (a count from a small report, not a rate).	mild Reported as mild and self-limiting (scoping review).	Authoritative guidance ^{95 7 31}
Dizziness Listed under undesirable effects.	Frequency not known (EU monograph).	mild Not stated.	Authoritative guidance ⁹⁵
Maple-syrup smell of urine, sweat and skin Reported in adults taking it and in newborns of mothers who took it during labour.	No rate found.	mild (harmless, but can mislead medical staff) Fades after stopping (not measured in the abstracts read).	Case report ^{11 48 57 56 27 7}
Allergic reactions (asthma, runny nose, facial swelling, wheezing, anaphylaxis) Includes cross-reaction with peanut and chickpea.	EU monograph: frequency not known. Ten case reports or series in the scoping review.	moderate to severe Reactions treated; outcome varies by case.	Case report ^{95 65 42 9 17 7}
Severe skin reaction (toxic epidermal necrolysis) A new mother who took fenugreek for 4 weeks to boost milk; she also used painkillers.	One case found.	severe Recovered after hospital treatment in the one case.	Case report ¹²
Low blood sugar Greater concern with diabetes drugs.	No rate found; reported in the scoping review; NCCIH says large amounts may cause a harmful drop.	moderate Not stated.	Authoritative guidance ^{7 99}
Low potassium (possible) Weak evidence; source behind the 14% figure was not read.	LactMed mentions a 14% decrease in serum potassium; scoping review lists "potential hypokalemia".	unknown Not stated.	Case report ^{1 7}
Raised liver tests (possible) See liver section.	One case; LactMed states liver toxicity has been reported alone and in mixtures (cited papers not read).	moderate in the case Liver tests normalised within weeks of stopping in the case.	Case report ^{2 1}
Blood clots in the lungs in men taking testosterone-booster blends Mixed products; cause not proven.	Two case reports.	severe Not stated.	Case report ^{4 62}
Hives in infants of mothers using fenugreek Very low certainty.	Reported in the Cochrane review; no rate.	mild to moderate Not stated.	Systematic review ²⁷

Liver

We found one published case of liver injury with a fenugreek supplement: a woman with breast cancer on ribociclib (a drug known to affect the liver) had grade III liver injury; the fenugreek supplement was found later, and liver tests normalised within eight weeks of stopping ribociclib and four weeks after stopping fenugreek. The authors scored the link as possible to probable, and fenugreek was not the only suspect. LactMed says liver toxicity has been reported with fenugreek alone and in herbal mixtures (its cited reports were not read). Reviews of trials report no liver or kidney toxicity in the trials pooled, and trials of fatty liver and diabetes monitored liver tests without liver harm in the abstracts. LiverTox could not be opened, so its rating is not stated here. ^{2 1 31 46 10 33 59}

How often. No frequency of human liver injury was found.

Monitoring. No official monitoring advice was found. Stop and seek care for yellow skin or eyes, dark urine or pain in the upper right belly. People on liver-affecting drugs should tell their prescriber.

. 47-year-old woman with metastatic breast cancer on ribociclib; grade III liver injury; fenugreek-based supplement also taken; RUCAM 4 after revision, Naranjo 4, DIPS 5 (probable herb-drug interaction); normal liver tests after stopping; moved to a different drug without recurrence.

This is a safety connection. It is not evidence that Fenugreek supports liver health.

Medicines and supplements 5

With	Why it matters	Importance	Evidence	What to do
Diabetes medicines (metformin, sulfonylureas such as glibenclamide, insulin) prescription	Fenugreek seed products lower blood sugar in trials, so they may add to diabetes medicines.	The EU monograph asks that blood sugar control be closely monitored in people treated for diabetes. Trials added fenugreek to metformin or sulfonylurea treatment (204 people; 50 people on drugs; 9 finishers on metformin) and did not report severe low blood sugar in their abstracts, but they were small.	Authoritative guidance Low certainty ^{95 38 33 59 99 1}	If you take diabetes medicine, do not add fenugreek without your doctor knowing. Check blood sugar more often and learn the signs of low sugar.
Warfarin and other blood thinners prescription	Unknown. Fenugreek is listed among herbs that may add to blood thinning; the one case involved boldo too.	One case: INR rose twice when boldo and fenugreek were taken, and normalised when stopped (Naranjo: probable). A study of 250 people on warfarin found too few fenugreek users to judge. Reviews call the evidence weak.	Case report Very low certainty ^{50 36 41 16 1}	If you take warfarin, tell your prescriber before using fenugreek, and have the INR checked after starting or stopping.
Ribociclib (a breast cancer drug) and other CYP3A4-processed medicines prescription	In the lab, high concentrations of a fenugreek extract blocked the liver enzymes CYP2D6 and CYP3A4; in six healthy volunteers taking the powder for a week, enzyme activity did not change significantly.	One case report of liver injury with ribociclib and fenugreek (DIPS: probable herb-drug interaction). The six-person study and lab work do not support a large effect.	Case report Very low certainty ^{2 3}	Cancer patients should not add fenugreek or any supplement without telling their oncology team.
Hormone therapy, hormone-blocking cancer drugs and testosterone treatment prescription	Some fenugreek extracts raised estradiol or free testosterone in trials.	Not studied as an interaction. The size of hormone changes varied by extract.	Pharmacological theory Not enough evidence ^{79 44 70 51}	Ask the prescriber if you take hormone therapy or have a hormone-sensitive condition.
Other herbs and supplements that lower blood sugar or are sold as testosterone boosters herb-supplement	Possible additive effect.	Not studied. The two lung-clot case reports involved blended testosterone-booster products.	Pharmacological theory Not enough evidence ^{4 62}	Avoid stacking several products; show the label list to a pharmacist.

Who should check first 10

Situation	Advice	Evidence
Allergy to fenugreek, peanut, soya, chickpea or other legumes	Do not use. The EU monograph lists hypersensitivity to fenugreek, peanut, soya and other plants of the legume family as a contraindication.	Authoritative guidance ^{95 23 24 17}
Pregnancy	Not recommended in medicinal amounts (EU monograph; NCCIH). Eating it as a spice in food is different.	Authoritative guidance ^{95 99 63}
Women who could become pregnant and are not using contraception	The EU monograph does not recommend use.	Authoritative guidance ⁹⁵
Breastfeeding	The EU monograph does not recommend use. LactMed describes limited safety data and various adverse reports. Ask a lactation consultant and doctor.	Authoritative guidance ^{95 1 27}
Children and teenagers under 18	Not recommended: the EU monograph says use has not been established because of lack of adequate safety data. Infants: a mother using it can give her baby a maple-syrup odour that has been mistaken for a rare disease.	Authoritative guidance ^{95 48}
Diabetes treated with medicines	Needs medical supervision and blood sugar checks.	Authoritative guidance ^{95 99}
Taking warfarin or other blood thinners	Tell the prescriber; INR monitoring.	Case report ^{50 36}
Asthma, especially if allergic	Asthma worsening and wheezing have been reported (LactMed; allergy case reports). Avoid if reactions occurred before.	Case report ^{1 65}
Hormone-sensitive cancer or condition, or a history of blood clots	Ask your doctor first, especially for concentrated extracts and testosterone-booster blends.	Pharmacological theory ^{79 4 62}
Liver disease or taking liver-affecting medicines	One case of liver injury with ribociclib and fenugreek; ask your doctor.	Case report ²

Overdose, product quality and regulators

Summary. Fenugreek is eaten widely as a spice, and doses in the trials read were generally well tolerated. High doses of seed in animals harmed reproduction. The EU monograph says reproductive studies were not adequate and genotoxicity and carcinogenicity tests had not been done.

Animal. EU monograph (preclinical section): lower triiodothyronine (T3) in rodents given hydro-ethanolic extracts at 110 mg/kg a day and above, no safe level (NOAEL) determined; testicular toxicity and lower fertility in mice, rats and rabbits at high doses of seed; embryo resorption, foetal death, growth retardation, malformations and altered neurobehavioural performance in rats and mice at high doses. A toxicology review (Ouzir 2016) reports similar findings and anti-implantation and abortion-causing activity in females, with oxidative stress and DNA damage in the testes of male animals.

Human doses studied. Trials read used from 0.5 to 1 g a day of extracts up to 25 g twice a day of seed powder (in one trial lasting a month); a 3-year trial used 10 g a day. These are not recommendations.

High dose or long term signals. EU monograph: 25 to 100 g a day of seed powder caused minor gut symptoms in 4 of 10 cases. The 3-year trial in prediabetes reported no adverse effects. No long-term safety study of extracts was found.

Overdose response. Gut symptoms (EU monograph). No deaths were attributed to fenugreek in a 2026 scoping review of 60 articles.

Genotoxicity. The EU monograph says tests on genotoxicity and carcinogenicity have not been performed.

Toxic plant parts. No toxic part of the seed was identified in the sources read. The leaf was not covered by a safety source read.

The proven quality problem is germs on seeds used for sprouting. Fenugreek products are also a hidden allergen in spiced foods: in a survey only about one third of fenugreek-containing foods were labelled correctly.

E. coli O104:H4 outbreak in Germany, 2011. Trace-back pointed to sprouts from one German farm and to a lot of fenugreek seeds imported from Egypt as the most likely source of contamination (Weiser 2013). The main epidemiology paper (Buchholz 2011) named sprouts as the likely vehicle and could not identify the outbreak strain on seeds from the implicated lot. ^{91 14}

Allergen labelling. About one third of fenugreek-containing food products were labelled correctly in a survey; the dose of fenugreek powder that caused symptoms in a challenge was about 2 mg. ²³

Supplements with undeclared ingredients. The authors of one lung-clot case report comment that supplement ingredients are poorly regulated and occasionally tainted with unlisted ingredients; this is an author comment, not a survey of fenugreek products. ⁴

Heavy metals, pesticides, mould toxins. No survey of fenugreek products for these was found in the sources read.

Body	Action	Date
European Medicines Agency, Committee on Herbal Medicinal Products (HMPC) (European Union)	European Union herbal monograph on Trigonella foenum-graecum L., semen, Draft - Revision 1 (EMA/HMPC/179591/2018), 3 March 2021: traditional use for temporary loss of appetite (oral) and minor skin inflammation (cutaneous). Contraindicated in hypersensitivity to fenugreek, peanut, soya and other legumes. Not recommended in pregnancy, lactation, or women who could become pregnant without contraception, or under 18. Monitor blood sugar in diabetes. Side effects: flatulence, diarrhoea, dizziness, allergy. Earlier monograph adopted 27 January 2011. source	2021-03-03
US National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health (NCCIH) (United States)	Fenugreek page (updated February 2025): not enough high-quality evidence for diabetes or menstrual cramps; uncertain for milk supply; not safe in pregnancy in amounts above food; little known in breastfeeding; digestive side effects; large doses may cause a harmful drop in blood sugar; allergy can be serious. source	2025-02
LactMed, Drugs and Lactation Database (US National Library of Medicine) (United States)	Fenugreek entry: limited safety data in nursing mothers and infants; effect on milk may be mostly psychological; gut effects, allergy, asthma worsening, maple-syrup odour; cautions with diabetes and warfarin; FDA lists it as "generally recognized as safe" as a flavouring. source	2026-10-15

When to get medical help

Swelling of the face, lips or throat, trouble breathing, wheezing, fainting or widespread hives after fenugreek: call emergency services now (possible anaphylaxis), especially with a peanut or legume allergy.
Painful blistering rash, skin peeling or sores in the mouth or eyes: go to emergency care (a severe skin reaction was reported in a new mother).
Shaking, sweating, confusion, severe weakness or fainting, especially if you take diabetes medicine: check blood sugar and get urgent help.
Black or bloody stools, vomiting blood, nosebleeds that will not stop or unusual bruising while on warfarin: seek urgent care.
Sudden chest pain, shortness of breath, coughing blood or one swollen painful leg: go to emergency care (blood clots were reported with testosterone-booster blends).
Yellow skin or eyes, dark urine or severe upper-right belly pain: stop and seek care (possible liver injury).
A newborn who smells of maple syrup: tell doctors that the mother used fenugreek, but a baby who is feeding poorly, very sleepy or vomiting still needs urgent medical assessment.

Stop the supplement and contact a clinician or emergency service. In the US, Poison Control is 1-800-222-1222.

General information only, not medical advice. Ask a clinician or pharmacist before use, especially with medicines, in pregnancy or with a health condition. See the Natural Remedy Safety guide.

Frequently asked questions

Does fenugreek lower blood sugar?

Probably a little, in people with type 2 diabetes, but the evidence is weak. Several pooled analyses of small trials found modest falls in fasting sugar and HbA1c, for example about 0.6 to 0.9 points for HbA1c. The trials are mostly low quality and disagree, and one analysis found no clear fall in fasting or after-meal sugar. The US National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health says there is not enough high-quality evidence. It cannot replace diabetes medicine.

^{61 31 78 45 46 99}

Is it safe to take fenugreek with diabetes medicine?

It needs medical supervision. Fenugreek can lower blood sugar, so it may add to metformin, sulfonylureas or insulin. The EU monograph says blood sugar control should be closely monitored in people treated for diabetes, and the NCCIH says large amounts may cause a harmful drop in blood sugar. Tell your doctor, and know the signs of low blood sugar.

^{95 99 38 33}

Does fenugreek boost testosterone?

Maybe slightly, but the evidence is very uncertain. A 2026 review of 13 trials in men found a small rise in total testosterone, no clear rise in free testosterone, no trial at low risk of bias, and certainty rated very low; it says the evidence does not support testosterone-boosting claims. Many trials tested branded extracts and some were sponsored or had no placebo.

^{92 40 54 51}

Does fenugreek increase breast milk?

It is very uncertain. A Cochrane review rated the evidence low to very low for natural milk boosters including fenugreek. Some small trials found more milk, one found a difference at day 7 but not day 15, and a trial of lactation cookies found no effect. A National Library of Medicine database says the effect may be mostly psychological. Talk to a lactation consultant and doctor first; see the safety tab for risks.

^{27 73 64 1 88}

Why does fenugreek make me smell like maple syrup?

Fenugreek can give urine, sweat and skin a maple-syrup smell. It is harmless in itself. One flavour compound, sotolone, is shared by fenugreek and by the urine of patients with maple syrup urine disease, a rare inherited illness of babies, and mothers who took fenugreek in labour had newborns with this smell, which led to a false suspicion of the disease. Tell the medical team if a mother took fenugreek, and always get a baby who is unwell checked.

^{48 68 56 11}

Is fenugreek safe in pregnancy?

It is not recommended in medicinal amounts. The EU monograph does not recommend use in pregnancy or in women who could become pregnant and are not using contraception, because animal studies showed reproductive toxicity. The NCCIH says it is not safe in pregnancy in amounts larger than found in food and links it to birth defects. We found no controlled human trial in pregnancy. Eating fenugreek as a spice in food is different.

^{95 99 63}

Is fenugreek safe while breastfeeding, and for babies?

Safety data are limited. The EU monograph does not recommend use during breastfeeding or under age 18. A national drug database notes limited data and lists gut upset, allergy, asthma worsening and the maple-syrup odour of urine, sweat and possibly breast milk. The Cochrane review reported hives in infants and maple-syrup urine odour as the minor effects. One new mother developed a severe blistering skin reaction. Ask a doctor first.

^{95 1 27 12}

Can people with peanut allergy take fenugreek?

They should avoid it. Fenugreek is a legume, its proteins resemble major peanut allergens, and in one study most blood samples from peanut-allergic patients also reacted to fenugreek. About 2 mg of powder caused symptoms in one challenge. The EU lists allergy to peanut, soya and other legumes as a contraindication. Reactions include wheezing, facial swelling and anaphylaxis.

^{95 23 24 65 42 17}

Does fenugreek interact with blood thinners?

Possibly. One woman on warfarin had a rise in her INR (blood-thinning test) when she took products with boldo and fenugreek; it fell when she stopped and rose again when she restarted. Reviews list fenugreek as a possible interaction, but nearly all the evidence is single cases. Tell your prescriber and ask about INR checks.

^{50 36 41}

Does fenugreek help period pain or menopause symptoms?

Possibly a little, but the evidence is low quality. A 2024 analysis of four trials found less period pain than placebo and the same as a standard painkiller, but rated the effect highly uncertain. Three small trials of branded extracts reported fewer hot flushes and night sweats in women around menopause, and two found rises in estradiol; women with hormone-sensitive conditions should ask a doctor first.

^{34 93 84 79 44}

Does fenugreek lower cholesterol or help with weight loss?

It may lower cholesterol slightly, but it does not help weight loss. Pooled trials found total cholesterol about 9 mg/dL lower and small falls in triglycerides, with disagreement on LDL, and no change in body weight or BMI. No trial looked at heart attacks.

^{8 37 45 25}

What side effects does fenugreek have, and when should I get help?

The most common are wind, diarrhoea and nausea; dizziness is also listed. Rarer problems include allergy, low blood sugar and, in single cases, a severe skin reaction and liver injury with a cancer drug. Get urgent help for swelling of the face or throat, trouble breathing, a blistering rash, shaking, sweating and confusion with diabetes medicine, or yellow skin or eyes. Raw fenugreek sprouts have been linked to an E. coli outbreak, so avoid them if pregnant, elderly, a young child or immune-weakened.

^{95 7 12 2 91}

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Editorial transparency

Written by: AlternativeMed editorial team. Research compiled with AI assistance, then checked against PubMed records.
Medical review: None. This page has not been reviewed by a physician or pharmacist.
First published: 2026-10-25
Last substantive update: 2026-10-25
How we research: We searched PubMed, read the full text of the EU draft herbal monograph on fenugreek seed (revision 1, March 2021) and the US National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health page, read the LactMed entry through its PubMed record, and checked plant names in GBIF and the NCBI taxonomy and compounds in PubChem. Only abstracts were read for almost all studies. Some sources were not verified: LiverTox (it could not be opened), the final adopted EU monograph (the draft was read), the German Commission E monograph, and the WHO and FDA statements. Certainty ratings are the compiler's own reading, except where the reviewers gave their own (the 2026 testosterone review rates its evidence very low by GRADE; the 2024 dysmenorrhea review rates it low by GRADE). No study is cited that we could not verify.
How we rate evidence: See "How we rate evidence" in the Evidence tab.
Independence: No product is promoted on this page. No affiliate links are shown. If one is added later it will be labelled and kept apart from the evidence.

Sources 101

Each source was opened and checked. Where we read only the abstract, it says so. The small numbers in the text point here.

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. GBIF Backbone: Trigonella foenum-graecum L. (usageKey 5360475). . . (full-text)
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. NCCIH: Fenugreek. . . (full-text)
. PubChem: 2,5-dimethylpyrazine (CID 31252, C6H8N2). . . (full-text)
. PubChem compound records: diosgenin (CID 99474), trigonelline (5570), 4-hydroxyisoleucine (2773624), sotolone (62835), protodioscin (441891), yamogenin (441900). . . (full-text)

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