Herbs & Botanicals · Herbs · Warming rhizome used for nausea and pain

Ginger

Q: Does ginger help with nausea in pregnancy?

It probably helps the feeling of nausea. Pooled analyses of trials in pregnant women find less nausea with ginger than with placebo, and about the same as vitamin B6. It did not clearly reduce how often women vomit. The certainty is moderate, because one review called the evidence low quality and another rated it high. Trials used about 1 g a day for a few days to three weeks. Talk to your midwife or doctor first, especially for severe vomiting.

Q: Does ginger help with chemotherapy nausea?

The evidence is mixed. One 2024 trial of 103 people found less delayed nausea and vomiting when ginger was added to usual anti-sickness drugs, but it did not help nausea on the first day. One review of 23 trials found no overall difference, and another found benefit mainly for severe symptoms. Ginger was only tested as an add-on, never a replacement, so tell your cancer team before using it.

Q: How much ginger should I take?

There is no single proven dose. In trials, ginger powder was usually 0.5 to 3 g a day, and about 1 g a day was common for pregnancy nausea, period pain and surgery nausea. A chemotherapy trial used a standardised 84 mg a day of gingerols and shogaols. The EU lists 1 to 2 g of powder an hour before travel for motion sickness, and 0.18 to 1 g three times a day for the traditional uses, for adults only. Label doses can differ from all of these, so ask a clinician if you are unsure.

Q: Is ginger tea as good as ginger capsules?

Unknown. The trials we read used capsules of powder or extract, and we found no placebo-controlled trial of ginger tea. The gingerol content of tea is not measured and varies with how much root you use and how long it steeps. Tea is a traditional, pleasant way to take ginger, but its effect cannot be read from capsule trials.

Q: Is ginger safe with blood thinners like warfarin?

The evidence is mixed, so be careful. Ginger reduced platelet stickiness in lab tests, but in two small studies of healthy men it did not change clotting measures or warfarin levels. One case report describes a very high INR and a nosebleed in a woman on a warfarin-type drug after ginger products. Some reviews list ginger as a possible bleeding risk with warfarin. No trial has tested it in people on long-term blood thinners. If you take any blood thinner, ask your prescriber and keep your intake steady.

Q: Is ginger safe in pregnancy?

Official advice differs. The EU herbal monograph says it is preferable to avoid ginger medicines in pregnancy as a precaution, even though data on 300 to 1000 pregnancies showed no malformations. The NIH says ginger supplements "may be safe" and to consult a provider. Trials for nausea used about 1 g a day for short periods and found no clear harm, though the miscarriage estimate was very imprecise. Check with your midwife or doctor before using supplements. Cooking amounts are a different matter.

Q: Is ginger safe with gallstones?

Nobody knows. A common warning says to avoid ginger with gallstones, but we found no study in people with gallstones. The one study we read gave 1,200 mg to 19 healthy young men and found no change in gallbladder emptying. Because ginger is sometimes thought to stimulate bile flow, people with gallstones or bile-duct disease can reasonably ask their doctor before taking concentrated supplements. That is caution, not a finding.

Q: What is a safe daily limit for ginger?

We found no official upper limit. A 2022 umbrella review reported that 0.5 to 3 g a day in capsules for up to 3 months was consistently reported as effective and appeared safe, and the EU reports no case of overdose. We found no human safety trial beyond about 3 months. At higher supplement doses, heartburn and stomach upset are the main signal. Eating ginger in food is a different matter from concentrated capsules.

Q: Can ginger help with osteoarthritis pain?

Maybe a little. A 2015 pooled analysis of five placebo-controlled trials found a small pain benefit, but a 2020 review of knee studies called the evidence insufficient because the trials were poor and varied. A 1 g a day trial found no benefit, and more people stopped taking ginger than placebo. Ginger is not a replacement for treatment, so talk to your doctor if you have joint pain with swelling, redness or fever.

Q: Does ginger help with period pain?

It probably does. Pooled trials find less period pain than placebo, and in two small trials without placebo, about the same relief as ordinary anti-inflammatory painkillers such as ibuprofen. Trials used about 750 to 2,000 mg of powder a day for the first three or four days of the period. Results vary a lot between trials, so how much it helps is uncertain. See a doctor if pain is severe or new.

Zingiber officinale Roscoe · also called Common ginger, garden ginger, jengibre (Spanish), gingembre (French), Ingwer (German), adrak (Hindi), sheng jiang (fresh) and gan jiang (dried) in Chinese medicine

Ginger is the underground stem (rhizome) of a tropical plant in the ginger family. It is eaten fresh, dried, as tea and as a spice, and it is sold as powder capsules, concentrated extracts, tinctures and oil. This profile covers ginger as a herb and supplement. Ginger as a cooking spice has its own page.

General information, not medical advice. Last substantive update October 24, 2026 · Not medically reviewed. A named clinician has not signed off on this page. How this page is made

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About Ginger

Ginger (Zingiber officinale) is the underground stem of a tropical plant in the ginger family, eaten for thousands of years and used in food and traditional medicine for nausea, digestion, colds and pain. It is among the better-researched herbs. For nausea in early pregnancy and for period pain the evidence reaches moderate certainty. For most other uses it is low, mixed or very low, and for memory, mood and sleep it is almost absent. Side effects are usually mild, with heartburn the most common. The main cautions are possible extra bleeding with blood thinners or before surgery, and pregnancy, where official advice differs.

What it is

Ginger is a perennial plant whose thick underground stem, the rhizome, is the part used. It belongs to the ginger family, as do turmeric and cardamom. Ginger is grown from pieces of rhizome, so crops are clones and the plant is known mainly in cultivation.

Many studies filed under "ginger" are about other plants in the same family, so the Latin name Zingiber officinale is what to check on a label. Fresh ginger and dried ginger are treated as different drugs in Chinese medicine, and heat and drying change the mix of compounds.

This profile is for ginger as a herb and supplement. Ginger as a cooking spice is covered separately.

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What makes it distinctive

Ginger's heat and many of its effects come from gingerols, mainly 6-gingerol. When ginger is dried, stored or cooked, gingerols turn partly into shogaols, which are even more pungent. Raw, dried and cooked ginger are therefore not chemically identical.

In test tubes, gingerols and shogaols block a serotonin receptor (5-HT3) in the gut and nausea pathway, which is the leading idea for how ginger settles nausea. That is lab work. Free gingerols are barely detectable in human blood after a dose, because the body quickly attaches them to other molecules, and nobody has shown that blood levels in people are high enough to do this.

Ginger has been tested in people almost only as whole preparations (powder, capsules, extracts, tea), never as a pure compound. Results from one product should not be assumed for another.

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Historical and current uses

Ginger is documented in traditional Chinese medicine, Ayurveda and Western herbal medicine, mainly for upset stomach, nausea, gas, cough and cold-type complaints, and joint pain. Older claims about ancient writers come mostly from encyclopedia summaries that we could not confirm from original sources.

The EU regulator lists powdered ginger before travel for motion-sickness nausea as a well-established use, and lists mild gut cramps, loss of appetite, minor joint pain and common cold symptoms as traditional uses. Today, people also take ginger for pregnancy nausea, period pain, arthritis and blood sugar.

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What the research shows

Nausea and period pain have the strongest support. For pregnancy nausea, pooled analyses of trials in over a thousand women find less nausea than with placebo, with no clear effect on vomiting. For period pain, pooled trials find less pain than placebo, though results vary a lot between trials.

For chemotherapy and after-surgery nausea, osteoarthritis, blood sugar and cholesterol, reviews disagree or rate the certainty low or very low. For migraine, a 2026 review says it is too uncertain whether ginger works.

Research on the mind and brain is thin. One small memory trial was positive, the one mood and anxiety trial in healthy adults was null, and the one sleep trial was null. Most trials are small, short and use different products and doses, and many reviews note poor reporting.

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Root, leaf, powder, extract: what is the difference?

Powder in capsules

Dried ground rhizome, often 250 mg to 1 g per capsule. Most trials used plain powder at about 0.5 to 3 g a day.

The best-supported uses (pregnancy nausea, period pain, surgery nausea) mostly used plain powder at around 1 g a day. Trial powders were not tested for gingerol content in the abstracts, so a capsule on the shelf may not match.

Standardised extracts

Extracts with a stated active content, such as 84 mg a day of gingerols and shogaols or a 5 percent extract.

Different makers standardise differently, so a trial extract cannot be assumed equal to another brand. One osteoarthritis extract also contained galangal, so its effect cannot be credited to ginger alone.

Fresh root, tea and food

Sliced or grated fresh rhizome, ginger tea, candied or cooked ginger.

We found no placebo-controlled trial of ginger tea or food, and the gingerol content of tea was not measured in the trials we read. One motion-sickness study using 1 g of fresh root found no protection. No trial dose can be turned into teaspoons.

Tinctures

Ginger steeped in 90 percent alcohol. The EU traditional doses are 1.5 to 3 ml of the 1:10 tincture, or 0.25 to 0.5 ml of the 1:2 tincture, three times a day.

The 1:2 tincture is five times stronger than 1:10 by volume, so they must not be swapped by volume. They contain alcohol. No clinical trial of tinctures was found among those read.

Inhaled ginger oil

Ginger essential oil breathed in, not swallowed.

Not comparable with oral ginger. In one chemotherapy trial it lowered acute nausea but not vomiting, and a second study was not randomised.

Raw versus heated ginger

Ginger heated before eating or encapsulating, which raises shogaols.

Two small trials in healthy volunteers found raw and heated ginger reduced exercise soreness by a similar amount, so more shogaol is not proven better.

At a glance

Traditional uses history, not proof

Nausea and an upset stomach, in many food and medical traditions
EU traditional use: mild gut cramps with bloating and gas, loss of appetite, minor joint pain and common cold symptoms
EU well-established use: preventing nausea and vomiting from motion sickness (powder taken before travel)
Traditional Chinese medicine (fresh and dried ginger are separate drugs) and Ayurveda, mainly for digestion, cold-type complaints and cough

Studied for research

Nausea and vomiting in pregnancy, moderate certainty
Period pain (primary dysmenorrhea), moderate certainty
Chemotherapy and after-surgery nausea, low certainty
Knee osteoarthritis pain, low certainty (reviews disagree)
Blood sugar and cholesterol, low to very low certainty
Memory, mood and sleep, very low or insufficient evidence

Main compounds

Gingerols, mainly 6-gingerol (the pungent compounds of fresh ginger)
Shogaols and paradols (form when ginger is dried, stored or heated)
Zingerone and a volatile oil (zingiberene, sesquiphellandrene, bisabolene)

Common forms

Powder in capsules (most trials used 0.5 to 3 g a day)
Standardised extracts (for example 84 mg a day of gingerols and shogaols in one chemotherapy trial)
Fresh root, tea and food (not tested in placebo-controlled trials we read)
Tinctures (EU traditional use) and inhaled ginger oil

Research links: NIH NCCIH: Ginger · EU herbal medicine page for ginger rhizome (EMA) · NIH LactMed: Ginger · NIH LiverTox: Ginger · Research Library · Genes & Biomarkers Library

The plant and its history

Accepted scientific name: Zingiber officinale Roscoe
Naming authority: Roscoe, published in Transactions of the Linnean Society of London 8: 348 (1807) (GBIF); NCBI Taxonomy gives 'Roscoe, 1807'
Synonyms: Amomum zingiber L.; Amomum zinziba Hill; Zingiber zingiber (L.) H.Karst.; Zingiber majus Rumph.; Zingiber missionis Wall.; Zingiber aromaticum Noronha; Amomum angustifolium Salisb.; Curcuma longifolia Wall.; Zingiber officinale var. rubrum Theilade (red ginger; GBIF lists it as a synonym of the species); Zingiber officinale var. rubens Makino; Zingiber officinale var. macrorhizonum Makino; Zingiber officinale var. cholmondeleyi F.M.Bailey; Zingiber sichuanense Z.Y.Zhu, S.L.Zhang & S.X.Chen; Zingiber sianginensis Tatum & A.K.Das
Common names: Ginger (English); Common ginger (English); Garden ginger (English); Jengibre (Spanish); Gingembre (French); Ingwer (German); Zenzero (Italian); Gengibre (Portuguese); Gember (Dutch); Imbir lekarski (Polish); Zencefil (Turkish); Adrak (Hindi: अदरक) (Hindi); Inji (Tamil: இஞ்சி); dried ginger is sukku (சுக்கு) (Tamil); Alam (Telugu: అల్లం) (Telugu); Jiang (姜); fresh ginger is sheng jiang (生姜), dried ginger is gan jiang (干姜) (Chinese); Shoga (ショウガ) (Japanese); Saenggang (생강) (Korean); Jahe (Indonesian); Luya (Tagalog); Khing (ขิง) (Thai); Zanjabil (زنجبيل) (Arabic)
Botanical family: Zingiberaceae, the ginger family (order Zingiberales). Turmeric (Curcuma longa), cardamom (Elettaria cardamomum) and galangal belong to the same family (Wikipedia, secondary). Many results found for 'ginger' in the literature actually concern other Zingiber or Zingiberaceae species, so check the Latin name before using a study.
Classification: Plantae > Tracheophyta > Liliopsida (monocots) > Zingiberales > Zingiberaceae > Zingiber > Zingiber officinale
Native range: Not verified from a primary source. Wikipedia (secondary) states that ginger originated in Maritime Southeast Asia, is a cultigen (a plant known only in cultivation, with no wild population), and was probably first domesticated by Austronesian peoples. NCCIH says it is native to the warm parts of Asia and is now grown in parts of South America, Africa and the Middle East (s-nccih-ginger). Wikipedia gives 2023 world production as 4.9 million tonnes, India about 45% (NOT verified; no FAO source read).
Habitat: Not described in the primary sources read. Wikipedia (secondary) says it is grown in warm, humid climates at about 300-900 m elevation in well-drained soil at least 30 cm deep (NOT verified).
What the plant looks like: Roots: The part used is the rhizome (underground stem), not a true root. The European Pharmacopoeia herbal drug is the whole or cut rhizome with the cork removed, completely or from the wide flat surfaces only (s-ema-ar-ginger-2025).; Stems: A perennial reed-like herb that makes yearly leafy false stems (rolled leaf bases) about 1 m tall (Wikipedia, secondary).; Leaves: Narrow leaf blades (Wikipedia, secondary).; Flowers: Pale yellow petals with purple edges, in an inflorescence that arises straight from the rhizome on a separate shoot (Wikipedia, secondary).; Fruit: Not described in the sources read.
Cultivation: Grown from pieces of rhizome ('seed' rhizomes), so crops are clones and the species is cultivated rather than wild. Wikipedia (secondary) describes seed-rhizome treatment against rot and pests before planting. Cultivar and harvest maturity change the oil and [6]-gingerol content of fresh ginger (p23570262, title and journal only; abstract not read). Red ginger (var. rubrum) is a cultivated form widely eaten in Indonesia and studied separately (p30546874).
Harvest and processing: The European Pharmacopoeia (as quoted in the EMA assessment report) sets a minimum of 15 ml/kg essential oil in the dried drug; the report puts the volatile oil at 1-4% and the gingerols at 4-7.5% of the herbal substance, with starch up to 50% and lipids 6-8% (s-ema-ar-ginger-2025). During drying and storage gingerols partly lose water to become shogaols, which may be reduced further to paradols, so dried and stored ginger is chemically different from fresh (s-ema-ar-ginger-2025, p26228533). Heating or cooking can also form zingerone (review claim, p26106644). Spray-drying fresh ginger juice raised several shogaols and zingerone in a 2025 lab study, depending on the carrier added (p40559374). Traditionally the rhizome is dug when the stalk withers and scalded or scraped to prevent sprouting (Wikipedia, secondary).
Look-alikes and adulterants: Name: Wild ginger (Asarum species); Note: A group of unrelated plants (dicots, not in the ginger family) that are called wild ginger because of a similar taste (Wikipedia, secondary). Not verified from a primary source here. They are not a substitute for ginger, and nothing about their safety was read for this profile, so no safety claim is made.; Name: Turmeric (Curcuma longa) and mango ginger (Curcuma amada); Note: Close relatives in the same family with similar-looking rhizomes. Turmeric is a different herb with its own profile. A PubMed record for mango ginger (Curcuma amada) from Myanmar exists (p33396947, title only read), which shows that papers on other 'gingers' can turn up in a ginger search.; Name: Galangal (Alpinia species); Note: A relative used in similar dishes and traditional remedies. Alpinia officinarum (lesser galangal) appears next to ginger in a 1992 enzyme study of prostaglandin-synthesis inhibitors (p1606634), so some 'ginger' findings come from galangal compounds, not ginger.; Name: Bitter ginger (Zingiber zerumbet) and other Zingiber species; Note: Another Zingiber grown alongside ginger in Austronesian cultivation (Wikipedia, secondary). A literature search for Zingiber zerumbet, Z. montanum and Z. cassumunar returned 289 records in October 2026, so species mix-ups in the literature are possible. A review of the genus is available (p29207520, title only read).; Name: Torch ginger (Etlingera elatior); Note: A different plant in the ginger family; a 2026 systematic review of it exists (p41494611, title only read). Not ginger.; Name: Red ginger vs standard ginger; Note: Red ginger (Z. officinale var. rubrum, Indonesia) is listed by GBIF within the same species, but its compound mix and pharmacokinetics were studied on their own (p30546874), so results on one cannot be assumed to hold for the other.; Name: Fresh, dried, steamed, powdered, candied, juice, oil; Note: Same species, but chemically different products: dried ginger has more shogaols than fresh, and the oil and the pungent fraction are separated in extracts. Most clinical trials use dried powder or capsules (p35147170).
Sustainability and conservation: Not verified. No IUCN assessment was retrieved. Ginger is a cultigen and is commercially grown, so wild-harvest pressure is not the usual concern; threats described in the literature are crop diseases (for example a 2025 report on Pythium rot, p41078509, title only read).

The plant and the parts used

Close-up of fresh ginger rhizome (Zingiber officinale) — The rhizome (underground stem), the part used.

Traditional use and history history, not clinical proof

Tradition or era	Documented use	Source
China, Warring States period (475-221 BCE): the Analects	Wikipedia states that the first written record of ginger is in the Analects, where Confucius is said to have eaten ginger with every meal. This is a food use, not a medicinal one. NOT verified from a primary source.	s-wikipedia-ginger
Traditional Chinese medicine (documented in the Pharmacopoeia of the People's Republic of China, 2005 edition, as cited by the EMA)	Fresh ginger is used for abdominal distension, coughing, vomiting, to promote sweating, and to reduce the poisonous effect of other herbs. The steamed and dried rhizome is used for abdominal pain, lumbago, diarrhoea, cholera, haemorrhage, rheumatism and toothache. The Chinese pharmacopoeia lists both dry and fresh ginger for epigastric pain with cold feeling, vomiting and diarrhoea with cold limbs, and for cough with frothy sputum. Doses in Chinese medicine are 3-9 g of fresh or powdered drug.	s-ema-ar-ginger-2025
Ayurveda (Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of India 2009; Indian Herbal Pharmacopoeia 2002; Indian Pharmacopoeia 2007, as cited by the EMA)	Used as a carminative (gas-relieving), digestion promoter, anti-colic remedy and for piles; also recommended for chronic skin disease, obesity, abnormal bleeding after childbirth and filariasis. The Indian Herbal Pharmacopoeia describes it as carminative, anti-emetic and anti-inflammatory. Traditional dose of the powdered dry drug is 1-2 g.	s-ema-ar-ginger-2025
Western herbal tradition (Bone and Mills 2013; WHO 1999; Commission E monograph 1990, as cited by the EMA)	Used for congestive chest problems, dyspepsia, flatulent colic, gastritis and diarrhoea. Also described for motion sickness, postoperative nausea, vomiting in pregnancy and seasickness, colds and flu, appetite, migraine and rheumatic or muscular complaints. The Commission E monograph of 1990 describes 2-4 g a day for dyspepsia and prevention of motion sickness.	s-ema-ar-ginger-2025
Ancient Greece and Rome (Dioscorides about 40-90 CE; Pliny the Elder; Aetius of Amida)	Wikipedia states that ginger reached the Mediterranean through Arab traders, was described by Dioscorides and Pliny the Elder, and was imported into the Roman Empire as an expensive ingredient of herbal remedies (for example for the kidneys), with Aetius of Amida listing it in complex prescriptions. NOT verified: no primary text or scholarly history paper was read, so what exactly these authors described is not confirmed.	s-wikipedia-ginger
Early spread and spice trade (Wikipedia, secondary)	Wikipedia states that the Austronesian peoples carried ginger across the Indo-Pacific from about 5,000 years ago and to India about 3,500 years ago, that a monk named Faxian wrote in 406 CE that ginger was grown in pots on Chinese ships to prevent scurvy, and that in 14th-century England a pound of ginger cost as much as a sheep. These dates and claims are NOT verified from primary sources.	s-wikipedia-ginger
Modern official status (EMA/HMPC, 2025 assessment report)	The EU herbal monograph keeps a well-established-use indication for powdered ginger to prevent nausea and vomiting in motion sickness (1-2 g, one hour before travel), although the committee itself calls the quality of the motion-sickness studies weak by current standards and keeps the indication for regulatory consistency. Traditional-use indications are also listed for gastrointestinal complaints, loss of appetite, minor joint pain and the common cold.	s-ema-ar-ginger-2025

Traditional use shows how a plant was used. It does not show that a supplement works or is safe today.

What is inside, and how it may work

What the plant contains and how those compounds act in cells and animals. Laboratory and animal mechanisms are not proven effects in people.

Main compounds

Compound	Family	Where it is concentrated	Activity studied	Level of evidence
6-Gingerol ([6]-gingerol) PubChem 442793	gingerol (phenolic pungent compound, vanilloid-type)	Rhizome Gingerols together are 4-7.5% of the herbal substance and 6-gingerol is the principal one (s-ema-ar-ginger-2025). A 250 mg dry extract used in a human pharmacokinetic study held 5.38 mg 6-gingerol, as quoted by the EMA (secondary).	Activates the capsaicin (TRPV1) receptor in neurons in culture; weakly blocks 5-HT3 receptors (low micromolar, non-competitive, including human receptors and human gut nerve tissue); weak effect on muscarinic M3 receptors in guinea-pig gut; blocked the p38 MAP kinase - NF-kappa-B - COX-2 pathway in mouse skin (animal); raised mitochondria numbers through AMPK-PGC1alpha in liver cells and mice (extract at 2 g/kg in mice; 6-gingerol in cells); inhibited human CYP2C9 and, moderately, CYP2C19/CYP3A4 in a test-tube kit assay. Not found as a free compound in human blood in the main dose study; it circulates as glucuronide and sulfate conjugates. ^{25 112 2 83 46 26 54 124 118 97}	Laboratory research
8-Gingerol PubChem 168114	gingerol	Rhizome Present in smaller amounts than 6-gingerol (s-ema-ar-ginger-2025). Zick extract: 1.28 mg per 250 mg dry extract (EMA, secondary).	Activates TRPV1 in neurons in culture, with potency rising with side-chain length; among the more potent gingerols at 5-HT3 receptors in a cell and guinea-pig-ileum test; strongest CYP inhibitor of the three gingerols in a kit assay (IC50 6.8 micromol/L CYP2C9, 8.7 CYP3A4); inhibited arachidonic-acid-induced human platelet aggregation in whole blood (IC50 3-7 micromol/L, compared with aspirin 20 micromol/L in the same test). ^{25 2 54 78 124}	Laboratory research
10-Gingerol PubChem 168115	gingerol	Rhizome Present in smaller amounts than 6-gingerol (s-ema-ar-ginger-2025). Zick extract: 4.19 mg per 250 mg dry extract (EMA, secondary).	Depressed the maximal 5-HT response in guinea-pig gut preparations (from 93% to 65% at 3 micromol/L); inhibits CYP2C9, CYP2C19 and CYP3A4 activity and CYP3A4 messenger RNA in a liver cancer cell line; unlike 6-gingerol, which raised CYP3A4 messenger RNA. One of the few ginger compounds detected as the free (unconjugated) form in human blood after 2 g of extract (peak 9.5 ng/mL) and in 19 people given red ginger (peak 160.49 ng/mL, half-life 336 minutes). ^{83 54 118 53 124}	Laboratory research
6-Shogaol ([6]-shogaol) PubChem 5281794	shogaol (dehydrated gingerol)	Rhizome, mostly after drying, heating or storage Forms from 6-gingerol when ginger is dried, stored or heated (s-ema-ar-ginger-2025, p26228533). Zick extract: 0.92 mg per 250 mg (EMA, secondary); another extract in the Yu study had 5.63 mg per 250 mg (2.25%), so amounts vary a lot between products.	More potent than 6-gingerol at 5-HT3 receptors in cell and ileum tests; reduced microglial inflammation (nitric oxide, PGE2, IL-1 beta, TNF-alpha, COX-2, p38, NF-kappa-B) in mouse brain-cell cultures and in two mouse models; increased glucose use in fat and muscle cells through AMPK; metabolised mainly by the thiol (mercapturic acid) route, also seen in human urine after ginger tea; peak free blood level 13.6 ng/mL after 2 g extract (Yu) and 453.40 ng/mL in the red-ginger study (different method). ^{2 112 37 114 15 16 118 53 97}	Laboratory research
8-Shogaol PubChem 6442560	shogaol	Rhizome, mostly after drying or heating Present in dried ginger; no content figure found in the sources read.	One of the strongest COX-2 inhibitors among 17 ginger compounds in intact cells (IC50 range for the set 1-25 micromol/L); anti-platelet activity in whole blood with IC50 3-7 micromol/L; thiol-conjugated metabolites seen in human urine after ginger tea. ^{106 78 15}	Laboratory research
10-Shogaol PubChem 6442612	shogaol	Rhizome, mostly after drying or heating Present in dried ginger; no content figure found in the sources read.	Partially activates the serotonin 5-HT1A receptor (20-60% of maximum) in cell tests; thiol metabolites in mice and human urine; lowest blood exposure of the gingerols/shogaols in rats (EMA, secondary). ^{76 15}	Laboratory research
Zingerone PubChem 31211	phenolic ketone (non-pungent breakdown product)	Cooked or heated ginger A review states it is absent in fresh ginger and forms when gingerol is heated or cooked (p26106644); spray-drying of juice also raised zingerone in a 2025 lab study (p40559374).	The review of zingerone lists anti-inflammatory, antidiabetic, antidiarrhoeal, antispasmodic, anxiolytic and antioxidant activity, but the abstract gives no human data. EMA (secondary) reports that zingerone and 6-shogaol reached the brain in rats. ^{3 113}	Laboratory research
6-Paradol ([6]-paradol) PubChem 94378	paradol (reduced shogaol)	Stored or processed ginger (a minor constituent) Formed when shogaols are reduced during storage; also the main metabolite of 6-shogaol in mice per the study abstract (p28106738). No content figure found.	Raised glucose use in fat and muscle cells through AMPK, and lowered blood glucose, cholesterol and body weight in mice fed a high-fat diet (p28106738). 8-Paradol was the strongest COX-1 inhibitor in a ginger-compound set (IC50 4 micromol/L) and strong against COX-2 in cells (p14693173, p11437391). The CID is for the 6- compound; the 8- compound was not looked up. ^{114 78 106}	Laboratory research
6-Gingerdione PubChem 162952	diketone related to gingerols	Rhizome Minor constituent; no content figure found. The name search returned one PubChem record for 'gingerdione' (IUPAC name 1-(4-hydroxy-3-methoxyphenyl)decane-3,5-dione).	1-Dehydro-6-gingerdione partially activated the serotonin 5-HT1A receptor in cell tests (a different compound from the CID shown, which is 6-gingerdione itself). Minor 5-HT3 blockers were found among related minor compounds such as 6-gingerdiol and 6-dehydrogingerdione. ^{76 1}	Laboratory research
6-Gingerdiol PubChem 11369949	diol related to gingerols	Rhizome Minor constituent; the PubChem name search returned a record titled 'Gingerdiol' without stereochemistry, so the CID may cover one form only.	Among the most potent 5-HT3-blocking compounds in a bioassay-guided fractionation of a hexane extract of ginger, alongside diacetyl-6-gingerdiol and 6-dehydrogingerdione (cell and rat-ileum tests). ¹	Laboratory research
alpha-Zingiberene PubChem 92776	sesquiterpene hydrocarbon (essential oil)	Rhizome oil A leading sesquiterpene of the volatile oil, which is 1-4% of the herbal substance (s-ema-ar-ginger-2025). Oil make-up varies with origin and with cultivar and harvest maturity (p23570262, abstract not read). The CID is for the (-)-isomer.	Defines the typical ginger smell. No human or mechanism data on the pure compound were read; one study found that the oil itself tested for 5-HT3 activity (p16041645), but the hexane extract (pungent compounds) was more active. ¹	Laboratory research
beta-Sesquiphellandrene PubChem 12315492	sesquiterpene hydrocarbon (essential oil)	Rhizome oil Named by the EMA among the main oil sesquiterpenes; no percentage found.	No separate activity data were read. ³⁰	Laboratory research
ar-Curcumene (zingiberol) PubChem 92139	sesquiterpene hydrocarbon (essential oil)	Rhizome oil Named by the EMA among the oil constituents; no percentage found.	No separate activity data were read. A computer docking study placed ar-curcumene among 12 ginger components with predicted binding to CYP enzymes (p25733806). ⁸⁸	Laboratory research
beta-Bisabolene PubChem 10104370	sesquiterpene hydrocarbon (essential oil)	Rhizome oil Named by the EMA among the oil constituents; no percentage found.	No separate activity data were read; included in the same CYP docking study (p25733806). ⁸⁸	Laboratory research
Other constituents (starch, lipids, volatile oil minor parts, diarylheptanoids)	mixed	Rhizome The EMA report lists starch up to 50%, lipids 6-8%, proteins and minerals, plus more than 100 volatile compounds (mostly terpenoids), including smaller amounts of camphene, beta-phellandrene, cineole, geraniol, citral, terpineol and borneol. A 2021 review counts over 160 constituents in all (gingerol analogues, diarylheptanoids, phenylalkanoids, sulfonates, steroids, monoterpenoid glycosides).	Most of these have no separate human data. Diarylheptanoids from ginger and galangal were more active against prostaglandin synthesis and 5-lipoxygenase than gingerols in one old test-tube study (p1606634). ^{30 119 47}	Laboratory research

Mechanisms, receptors and pathways

Target or pathway	Gene or receptor	What was found	Level
Capsaicin (vanilloid) receptor TRPV1 - the heat and pungency sensor on pain nerves	TRPV1	[6]- and [8]-gingerol caused calcium influx and ion currents in cultured sensory (dorsal root ganglion) neurons, blocked by the TRPV1 blocker capsazepine. Potency rose with longer side chains. This explains the warm, hot taste and may feed into pain and gut signalling, but no human study tested it. ²⁵	Laboratory research
Serotonin 5-HT3 receptor in the gut and nausea pathway (main candidate for the anti-nausea effect)	HTR3A / HTR3B	Ginger extract and its pungent compounds (6-gingerol, 6-shogaol) blocked human 5-HT3 receptors in cell lines and in human gut nerve tissue, in the low micromolar range, without competing for the serotonin binding site (non-competitive, a different action from ondansetron-type drugs). 6-Shogaol and 8-gingerol were more potent than 6-gingerol in cell and ileum tests. Whether the blood levels reached by ginger in people (free forms are low, see pharmacokinetics) are high enough has not been shown. ^{112 2 1 83}	Laboratory research
Muscarinic M3 and 5-HT4 receptors in the gut	CHRM3; HTR4	Gingerols and 6-shogaol only slightly lowered the maximal response to carbachol (M3) in guinea-pig ileum at 10 micromol/L and had no effect at 5-HT4 receptors in rat oesophagus muscle. The authors conclude that weak M3 and 5-HT3 blocking may underlie the anti-nausea effect and that 5-HT4 is not involved. ⁸³	Animal research
Serotonin 5-HT1A receptor (possible link to anxiety-like effects)	HTR1A	Nine ginger compounds bound the human 5-HT1A receptor (Ki 3-20 micromol/L); 10-shogaol, 1-dehydro-6-gingerdione and the whole lipophilic extract were partial agonists (20-60% of maximum). The whole extract (Ki 11.6 microg/mL) was among the active materials. Only a lab binding study; no human data on anxiety were read. ⁷⁶	Laboratory research
Prostaglandin and leukotriene synthesis: COX-1, COX-2 and 5-lipoxygenase	PTGS1 (COX-1); PTGS2 (COX-2); ALOX5	Gingerols, shogaols, paradols and diarylheptanoids inhibited prostaglandin synthesis, COX-1, COX-2 (17 compounds, IC50 1-25 micromol/L in intact cells) and 5-lipoxygenase in test-tube and cell systems; 8-paradol and 8-shogaol were among the strongest. This is the main rationale for pain and inflammation uses, but concentrations needed are well above the low free blood levels measured in people. ^{47 106 78 48}	Laboratory research
NF-kappa-B and p38 MAP kinase signalling, COX-2 expression	NFKB1 / RELA; MAPK14 (p38); PTGS2	Topical 6-gingerol cut COX-2 and blocked NF-kappa-B and p38 activation in mouse skin treated with a tumour promoter. 6-Shogaol reduced nitric oxide, PGE2, IL-1 beta and TNF-alpha, and lowered COX-2, p38 and NF-kappa-B in microglial cells, and reduced microglial activation in a mouse inflammation model and brain damage in a mouse ischaemia model. ^{46 37}	Animal research
Platelet aggregation (blood clotting) via the arachidonic-acid pathway	PTGS1 (COX-1) / thromboxane synthase pathway	In human whole blood, 8-gingerol, 8-shogaol and 8-paradol blocked arachidonic-acid-induced platelet aggregation with IC50 3-7 micromol/L (aspirin 20 micromol/L in the same test); synthetic gingerol analogues blocked serotonin release and aggregation in a similar dose range to aspirin. In contrast, a small double-blind human trial (8 healthy men, 2 g dried ginger vs placebo) found no change in bleeding time, platelet count, thromboelastography or platelet aggregation at 3 or 24 hours. So the test-tube effect has not been reproduced at 2 g of dried ginger in people. ^{78 48 60}	Mixed
Stomach emptying and motility	Gastric motor function (no single gene)	Human trials disagree. 1,200 mg ginger capsules in 24 healthy volunteers sped stomach emptying (half-emptying time 13.1 vs 26.7 min) and raised antral contractions; the same dose in 11 people with functional dyspepsia sped emptying (12.3 vs 16.1 min, median) with no change in symptoms or hormones (GLP-1, motilin, ghrelin). In contrast, 1 g ginger in 16 volunteers (paracetamol absorption method) and 500 mg powder in a motion-sickness study had no effect on emptying. Different doses, methods and products may explain the split. ^{115 41 84 101}	Human data
Motion-sickness nausea: stomach rhythm and vasopressin	AVP (vasopressin); gastric slow-wave rhythm	In 13 volunteers prone to motion sickness (crossover, placebo-controlled), ginger 1,000 and 2,000 mg reduced nausea, abnormal fast stomach rhythm (tachygastria) and rise in plasma vasopressin during circular vection, and delayed the onset of nausea. Ginger did not alter nausea from vasopressin infused directly, which suggests it acts upstream of vasopressin. An older study of 28 volunteers found no protection against motion sickness from 500-1,000 mg powdered ginger or 1,000 mg fresh ginger (scopolamine did work). Overall evidence for motion sickness is mixed; NCCIH says most motion-sickness studies have not shown a benefit, and the EMA calls its own supporting studies weak. ^{55 101 74 30}	Human data
AMPK activation, glucose use and mitochondria	PRKAA (AMPK); PPARGC1A (PGC-1 alpha)	6-Paradol and 6-shogaol raised glucose use in fat (3T3-L1) and muscle (C2C12) cells with more AMPK phosphorylation; 6-paradol lowered blood glucose, cholesterol and body weight in mice fed a high-fat diet. Ginger extract at 2 g/kg in mice raised oxygen use, body-surface heat and mitochondrial DNA in muscle and liver through AMPK-PGC1alpha; 6-gingerol rather than 6-shogaol seemed the main active in liver cells. Human trials on blood sugar are a separate question (see the body profile); these mouse and cell doses cannot be converted to human doses. ^{114 26}	Animal research
Drug-metabolising enzymes (CYP) and drug-interaction potential	CYP2C9; CYP3A4; CYP2C19; CYP2D6	In a kit assay with human enzymes, 6-, 8- and 10-gingerol inhibited CYP2C9 strongly, CYP2C19 and CYP3A4 moderately and CYP2D6 weakly (8-gingerol IC50 6.8, 12.5, 8.7 and 42.7 micromol/L for CYP2C9, 2C19, 3A4, 2D6); 8- and 10-gingerol lowered, and 6-gingerol raised, CYP3A4 messenger RNA in a liver cancer cell line. A computer-modelling study predicted a high interaction risk for CYP2C9 and CYP3A4. The EMA review concluded that there is insufficient evidence for induction or inhibition of CYP enzymes or P-glycoprotein by ginger in people. ^{54 88 30}	Mixed
Glutathione and the thiol (mercapturic acid) pathway	Glutathione conjugation (GSTs, enzymes not identified in the abstracts)	6-Shogaol first lowered then restored and raised glutathione in human colon cancer cells; its cysteine conjugate acts as a carrier that releases 6-shogaol again in cells and in mice. This is a metabolism and cell-protection finding in cancer cell lines and mice, not evidence of a benefit in people. ^{15 16}	Laboratory research

Absorption, metabolism and elimination

Absorption: Ginger's pungent compounds are absorbed quickly but mostly as conjugates. In a dose-escalation study in 27 healthy volunteers (single doses of ginger extract from 100 mg to 2.0 g), no free 6-, 8- or 10-gingerol or 6-shogaol was detected in blood, only their glucuronide forms (and 6-gingerol sulfate above the 1.0 g dose). At 2.0 g, the abstract gives Cmax of 0.85, 0.23, 0.53 and 0.15 microg/mL for 6-gingerol, 8-gingerol, 10-gingerol and 6-shogaol (these are conjugate-level figures; the abstract's AUC and Tmax figures look garbled in the original and are not quoted here). A second study of 2.0 g of extract found free 10-gingerol and 6-shogaol in blood at only 9.5 and 13.6 ng/mL after 1 hour, with the glucuronides at 0.17-0.73 microg/mL; free 6- and 8-gingerol were not detected. A third study gave 19 volunteers 2 g of red ginger suspension and measured free 10-gingerol (Cmax 160.49 ng/mL at 38 min) and 6-shogaol (453.40 ng/mL at 30 min); this is much higher than the 2011 study and the abstracts do not explain the gap (different product, extract versus suspension and assay are possibilities, not shown).
Distribution: Human tissue data are almost absent: in nine volunteers only very low 10-gingerol conjugate (2-3 ng/mL) was found in colon tissue after 2 g extract (p21638149; the abstract does not state n, nine is from the EMA's summary). In rats, 6-gingerol spread to all tissues examined, highest in the gut, and 6-shogaol and zingerone were found in the brain (EMA report, secondary; the underlying rat papers were not read). Whether any ginger compound reaches useful levels in human brain or joints is unknown.
Metabolism: Conjugation dominates. Human blood shows mostly glucuronides, with fewer sulfates (p18708382, p21638149). In liver microsomes from mouse, rat, dog and human, all four main compounds were metabolically unstable with high clearance; treating mouse plasma with beta-glucuronidase raised measured levels 10 to 700 times, and ketoconazole (a CYP inhibitor) raised free levels 3 to 60 times, so first-pass metabolism, especially glucuronidation, limits exposure (p28358331, mouse and test tube). Shogaols also go down the thiol (mercapturic acid) route; thiol-conjugated metabolites of 6-, 8- and 10-shogaol were found in human urine after ginger tea (p23322393). EMA (secondary) notes that in simulated stomach acid 6-gingerol and 6-shogaol convert back and forth, and in simulated intestinal fluid 6-shogaol is mostly turned to 6-paradol, possibly by gut microbes.
Elimination: Quick. Half-lives of the four compounds and their conjugates were 1-3 hours in the human plasma study (p21638149) and under 2 hours in the first study (p18708382). The red-ginger study reported much longer half-lives (336 min for 10-gingerol, 149 min for 6-shogaol, p30546874). No accumulation was seen after repeated daily dosing in the 2011 study (p21638149). Mouse and rat studies show repeated absorption peaks that suggest bile and gut recycling (EMA, secondary).
Bioavailability: Not established in humans: no intravenous comparison exists, and free-form blood levels are low and vary between studies. The mouse data suggest low systemic exposure of the free compounds because of liver and gut conjugation (p28358331). Effects of food, cooking, fresh vs dried form and gut microbes on human absorption were not found in the sources read.

^{124 118 53 70 15 16 30}

Isolated compounds versus whole extracts

Ginger has been tested in people almost only as whole preparations (powder, capsules, extracts, tea), never as pure 6-gingerol or 6-shogaol, so there is no human comparison of isolated versus whole. In the lab the picture is mixed. Several effects track the amount of pungent compounds in extracts (human 5-HT3 receptor blocking by ginger extracts rose with their pungent-compound content, p23490018; the hexane extract was the most active and the essential oil much less, p16041645). The whole lipophilic extract partly activated the 5-HT1A receptor alongside some of its own single compounds (p20363635). On the other hand, which single compound does the work depends on the test: 6-shogaol and 8-gingerol beat 6-gingerol at 5-HT3 receptors (p16364290), 6-paradol and 6-shogaol beat the gingerols for glucose use in cells (p28106738), and 6-gingerol rather than 6-shogaol drove mitochondrial effects in liver cells (p31369153). The processing of the plant also changes what is in the product: drying, storage and heat turn gingerols into shogaols and paradols and produce zingerone (s-ema-ar-ginger-2025, p26228533, p40559374), so fresh, dried and cooked ginger are not chemically identical. The authors of the mouse pharmacokinetic study argue for keeping the natural mix (the 'milieu') after their cancer-model work (p28358331), but that is their stated view from preclinical work, not proof in people. The practical point: results from a trial of one ginger product cannot be assumed for another with a different gingerol/shogaol mix.

Nutritional composition

Raw ginger root (USDA FoodData Central, SR Legacy entry 169231, per 100 g): about 80 kcal, 78.9 g water, 1.82 g protein, 0.75 g fat, 17.8 g carbohydrate, 2.0 g fibre, 415 mg potassium, 43 mg magnesium, 16 mg calcium, 0.6 mg iron, 5.0 mg vitamin C, 0.16 mg vitamin B6, 0.229 mg manganese and 0.226 mg copper (s-usda-fdc-169231, values read from the USDA API on 2026-10-24). Ginger is used in small amounts (a few grams fresh, or 0.5-3 g of dried powder in the supplement trials reviewed in p35147170), so a serving supplies only a few percent of these per-100 g figures; ginger is a flavouring and a herbal remedy, not a meaningful source of vitamins or minerals. The compounds discussed here (gingerols, shogaols, essential oil) are not nutrients and are not listed in food tables. Dried ginger will differ from the raw figures (less water, more of everything else per gram); no dried-ginger table was read.

Products, quality and comparisons

Independent evidence comes first. Nothing in this section is a paid ranking. If a product link is added later, it will be marked clearly as an affiliate link and will never change what the research says.

Quality indicators

Plant named as Zingiber officinale, with the part (rhizome) stated
Form stated: powder, extract, tincture, oil or tea
If extract: ratio and solvent, and gingerols and shogaols given as mg or percent with the test method
Same form and daily amount as a published trial, if you want to match research
Other herbs (turmeric, black pepper, galangal) listed separately, not hidden in a blend
Lot number and a certificate of analysis available on request
Seal or registration checked on the certifier's own website

Identity and authenticity

A 2022 review of the China-to-EU ginger supply chain found adulteration the main fraud type and ground or finely processed ginger the most vulnerable products. It reviewed fraud databases and stakeholders; it did not test shelf supplements.
A 2022 study of 7 powdered ginger products on the Ghanaian market found all contained Zingiber officinale, but 3 local products failed label requirements, some local samples had high aerobic bacterial counts, and variation hinted at processing differences and possible adulteration with other flours. It does not apply to supplements in other countries.
We did not find a survey of ginger capsules or extracts on the US or EU supplement market in our searches.

Standardization and extract strength

The EMA monograph says ginger material must comply with the European Pharmacopoeia monograph (Ph. Eur. 1522).
The main pungent compounds are gingerols; drying and heating convert gingerols to shogaols. A trial found raw and heat-treated ginger equally effective for muscle soreness, so a higher shogaol content is not proven better.
The chemotherapy trial that reported content gave it as 84 mg a day of gingerols and shogaols; many other trials gave only grams of powder.

Third-party testing

US dietary supplements are not approved by the FDA before sale; testing of one product does not apply to another (general point; NCCIH ginger page not read for this file).
Independent testing programmes (USP, NSF, ConsumerLab and others) differ in what they test, and a seal is a statement about that programme, not a guarantee of effect. Their test lists for ginger were not re-read.
In the EU, a traditional herbal registration is a regulator's quality-and-safety route based on long use, not proof of efficacy.

Contaminants and adulterants

The only ginger contamination survey we read was the Ghanaian powder study: heavy metals and ash within specification, aerobic bacterial counts high in some local samples.
Pesticide, aflatoxin and solvent-residue surveys of ginger supplements were not read.

Reading a product label

Find Zingiber officinale and the part used (rhizome or root).
Is it powder, extract, tincture, oil or a chew? Note mg per serving and servings per day.
For extracts, look for gingerols and shogaols as a percentage or mg with a test method.
Check whether turmeric, black pepper or other herbs are in the blend, and in what amounts.
Compare mg per day and form with a trial, not with another bottle.
Check cautions (pregnancy, blood thinners, diabetes medicines, gallstones, planned surgery) with a clinician.
Look for a lot number and a certificate of analysis.
Check any seal or registration on the certifier's own site.

Certifications and what they actually mean

Certification	What it means	What it does not tell you
EU traditional herbal medicinal product registration	A European regulator route for herbal medicines based on long-standing use; the EMA ginger monograph covers powder and tinctures at set doses.	Says the product is acceptable for the stated mild indication on the basis of tradition; does not claim trial-proven benefit.
European Pharmacopoeia monograph compliance (Ph. Eur. 1522)	The material meets the pharmacopoeia standard for ginger, as cited in the EMA monograph.	A maker's statement; check a certificate of analysis.
Third-party quality seals (USP, NSF, ConsumerLab and similar)	Independent programmes that test selected label and contaminant points.	What each programme tests differs; their test lists were not re-read for this file.
GMP statement	The maker says it follows good manufacturing practice.	Not an independent test of the product.
Organic, vegan, non-GMO, gluten-free	Farming and ingredient claims.	Say nothing about gingerol content, plant identity or adulteration.

Comparing price and servings

Do not compare bottle prices. Step 1: cost per serving = bottle price / servings per bottle. Step 2: servings per day needed to reach the studied daily amount (studied mg per day / mg of ginger per serving). Step 3: cost per day = cost per serving x servings per day. If gingerols and shogaols are stated, cost per mg of those compounds = bottle price / (servings x mg per serving x percent / 100); use only products of the same form. Leave prices blank until a real current product is entered; no prices are included here.

Extract types compared

Extract	Plant part	Standardization	Trials	Evidence note	Safety note	Limitations	Studies
Plain ginger powder capsules	rhizome	Not in abstracts	Pregnancy nausea (1 to 1.05 g/day, 4 days to 3 weeks); postoperative nausea (1 g once); period pain (1 g/day); knee osteoarthritis (1 g/day, no benefit); diabetes (3 g/day for 8 weeks); metabolic syndrome (2 g/day)	Most positive trials for nausea and period pain used plain powder. Results for osteoarthritis and blood sugar are mixed: a 1 g/day osteoarthritis trial and the 2024 diabetes meta-analysis found no significant effect.	Trials reported no serious problems; mild stomach upset is listed as common by the EMA. Osteoarthritis meta-analysis: more people stopped ginger than placebo (RR 2.33).	Powder sources and gingerol content were not described in the abstracts.	^{110 100 73 81 75 69 89 96}
Standardized ginger root powder capsules (84 mg/day gingerols and shogaols)	rhizome	84 mg per day of gingerols and shogaols from 4 capsules	Crichton 2024 (103 adults, 5 days per chemotherapy cycle, 3 cycles)	Better nausea quality of life and less delayed nausea and vomiting than placebo as an add-on to antiemetics; no effect on acute or anticipatory nausea.	No serious adverse events reported.	Single trial; powder weight not in abstract.	²³
Ginger capsules 250 mg each, 0.5 to 1.5 g/day	rhizome	Not in abstract	Ryan 2012 (576 analysed, 6 days around chemotherapy)	All doses reduced day-1 nausea; the 0.5 g and 1.0 g arms did best.	Not detailed in abstract.	Mostly women; mild-to-moderate chemotherapy mix.	⁹¹
Ginger plus galangal extract EV.EXT 77	rhizome (both species)	Highly concentrated, standardized; details not in abstract	Altman 2001 (261 people with knee osteoarthritis, 6 weeks, twice daily)	63% vs 50% responders; knee pain on standing fell more than with placebo; WOMAC difference not significant.	More mild stomach and gut side effects than placebo (59 vs 21 patients).	Two-species product; cannot be credited to ginger alone.	⁴
Ginger extract with 5 percent active ingredient (400 mg)	rhizome	5% active ingredient	Martins 2019 (60 adults in the emergency room, single dose with ketoprofen)	Better response at 1 to 2 hours than ketoprofen plus placebo. A 2026 review judges migraine evidence low to very low certainty.	Not detailed in abstract.	One centre; add-on design.	^{63 9}
Raw versus heat-treated ginger	rhizome	Not stated	Black 2010 (2 g/day for 11 days, 34 and 40 volunteers)	Both reduced muscle pain after exercise about 23 to 25 percent at 24 hours; heating gave no extra effect.	Not detailed in abstract.	Healthy volunteers; induced soreness.	¹²
Ginger oil (preparation route not stated in the review abstract)	rhizome (oil)	Not stated	2023 network meta-analysis of 18 publications on postoperative nausea and vomiting	Ginger oil ranked best for reducing postoperative vomiting (RR 0.39, 95% CI 0.16-0.96) but no ginger form clearly reduced postoperative nausea.	Not covered in abstract.	Network analysis; certainty ranged moderate to low for nausea.	¹²¹
Inhaled ginger essential oil	rhizome (oil)	Not stated	Lua 2015 (60 women on chemotherapy, 5 days); Lee 2017 (60 abdominal surgery patients)	Acute nausea lower in one, not overall; vomiting unchanged. The second study was not randomized.	Not detailed in abstracts.	Single-blind and quasi-experimental designs.	^{59 52}

Compare Ginger with another ingredient

Compare with

Ginger vs Vitamin B6 (pyridoxine)

Two head-to-head sources found ginger and vitamin B6 about equal for nausea in early pregnancy. Neither is a replacement for medical advice; severe vomiting needs a clinician.

	Ginger	Vitamin B6 (pyridoxine)
Benefits studied	Nausea and vomiting of pregnancy (also chemotherapy, surgery, period pain and others)	Nausea and vomiting of pregnancy (as a comparison in ginger trials)
Evidence certainty	moderate to high for nausea: the 2022 umbrella review graded antiemetic effect in pregnancy high; a 2014 review called evidence low quality	Not re-verified here; used as a comparison drug in the trials
Typical studied dose	1 to 1.05 g a day of ginger for 4 days to 3 weeks	75 mg a day for 3 weeks in the 291-person trial
Head-to-head trial	Smith 2004 (291 women): ginger equivalent to B6 for nausea, retching and vomiting; Hu 2022 meta-analysis: no significant difference	Same trials
Safety and interactions	Heartburn and drowsiness not significantly increased in a 2014 review; EMA prefers avoiding ginger in pregnancy as a precaution	Not re-verified here
Forms	Capsules of powder or extract, tea, tincture	Tablet or capsule (not compared here)
Cost note	Use the price-per-day formula; no prices stored	Use the same formula

^{100 42 109 21}

Ginger vs Mefenamic acid and ibuprofen (NSAID painkillers)

Ginger looked similar to common painkillers in two small trials, and a 2024 meta-analysis found no difference from NSAIDs. These trials had no placebo, and the pooled data had high heterogeneity.

	Ginger	Mefenamic acid and ibuprofen (NSAID painkillers)
Benefits studied	Period pain; also osteoarthritis and nausea	Period pain (as the comparison drug)
Evidence certainty	low to moderate: the 2022 umbrella review graded dysmenorrhea GRADE low to moderate; 2024 meta-analysis pooled results had high heterogeneity	Not re-verified here
Typical studied dose	250 mg ginger four times a day for 3 days (1 g/day) or 250 mg every 6 hours	Mefenamic acid 250 mg (every 8 hours in one trial); ibuprofen 400 mg
Head-to-head trial	Ozgoli 2009 (150) and Shirvani 2015 (122): no significant difference from the drugs; no placebo group in either	Same trials
Safety and interactions	No severe side effects in the trials; menstrual days slightly more with ginger in one trial	Not re-verified here
Forms	Capsules	Capsules or tablets
Cost note	Use the price-per-day formula	Use the same formula

^{81 98 68 21}

Ginger vs Dimenhydrinate (travel-sickness and nausea medicine)

In one trial ginger matched dimenhydrinate for nausea in pregnancy with far less drowsiness, but vomiting was higher in the first two days. Motion-sickness trials of ginger give mixed results.

	Ginger	Dimenhydrinate (travel-sickness and nausea medicine)
Benefits studied	Nausea and vomiting of pregnancy; motion sickness	Nausea and vomiting of pregnancy (one trial)
Evidence certainty	mixed for motion sickness (one 13-person lab study positive, one 28-person study no protection); EMA lists well-established use of 1 to 2 g before travel	Not re-verified here
Typical studied dose	0.5 g twice a day for 7 days in pregnancy; 1 to 2 g before travel (EMA)	50 mg twice a day in the pregnancy trial
Head-to-head trial	Pongrojpaw 2007 (170 women): similar nausea scores; more vomiting with ginger on days 1 and 2	Same trial
Safety and interactions	Drowsiness 5.88% with ginger	Drowsiness 77.64%
Forms	Capsule of powder	Tablet
Cost note	Use the price-per-day formula	Use the same formula

^{86 55 101 31}

Ginger vs Sumatriptan (migraine medicine)

One small trial found ginger similar to sumatriptan, but the best review judges all migraine evidence for ginger as low to very low certainty. Migraines that are new, severe or changing should be seen by a clinician.

	Ginger	Sumatriptan (migraine medicine)
Benefits studied	Acute migraine attack; migraine prevention add-on	Acute migraine attack (as the comparison drug)
Evidence certainty	low to very low: the 2026 meta-analysis of 8 trials (594 people) says it is too uncertain whether ginger works	Not re-verified here
Typical studied dose	Dose not in the abstract of the sumatriptan trial; 400 mg of a 5 percent extract added to ketoprofen in another	Not read in the abstract
Head-to-head trial	Maghbooli 2014 (100): similar effect at 2 hours, fewer side effects with ginger; the 2026 review rated this very uncertain	Same trial
Safety and interactions	Fewer clinical side effects than sumatriptan in that trial	Not re-verified here
Forms	Powder capsule or extract	Tablet
Cost note	Use the price-per-day formula	Use the same formula

^{61 63 9}

Ginger vs Turmeric (curcumin)

Both are used for joint pain and have weak to moderate evidence. We found no trial comparing them directly, and the only blend trial measured a lab marker.

	Ginger	Turmeric (curcumin)
Benefits studied	Knee osteoarthritis pain, nausea, period pain, blood sugar	Knee osteoarthritis pain (as read here)
Evidence certainty	Osteoarthritis: mixed. 2015 meta-analysis (5 trials, 593 people) small pain effect, moderate quality; 2020 meta-analysis called evidence insufficient; the 1 g/day trial found no benefit	low: a 2025 network meta-analysis of 17 studies found all turmeric products reduced WOMAC pain versus placebo, with low certainty
Typical studied dose	0.75 to 1 g a day of powder in osteoarthritis trials	Not read in the abstract
Head-to-head trial	None found directly; a turmeric, black pepper and ginger blend matched naproxen on a blood marker (PGE2) in 60 people	Same blend trial
Safety and interactions	More people stopped ginger than placebo in osteoarthritis (RR 2.33); mild stomach upset common per EMA	Not re-verified here
Forms	Powder, extract, tincture, tea	Turmeric powder, curcuminoid extracts, bioavailability-enhanced products
Cost note	Use the price-per-day formula	Use the same formula

^{11 7 111 40 75} Read the full comparison

Other supplements people compare it with

Vitamin B6 (Nausea and vomiting in early pregnancy): Equivalent to ginger in a 291-person trial; our rating reflects that ginger evidence is graded high by an umbrella review and that B6 evidence itself was not re-read. Evidence: moderate. ^{100 42}
Standard antiemetic drugs (as prescribed) (Chemotherapy and postoperative nausea): Ginger was tested as an add-on to a 5-HT3 antiemetic in chemotherapy trials; for surgery, one meta-analysis found less nausea with ginger than with standard antiemetics but no vomiting difference. Evidence: moderate. ^{91 23 123}
Stretching exercise (Period pain): More effective than ginger in one trial of 122 students. Evidence: low. ⁹⁹
NSAID painkillers (mefenamic acid, ibuprofen) (Period pain): Similar to ginger in two small trials without placebo. Evidence: low. ^{81 98}
Turmeric / curcuminoids (Knee osteoarthritis): 2025 network meta-analysis: reduced pain, low certainty. Evidence: low. ¹¹¹
Peppermint (Digestive complaints): No peppermint study was read for this file; listed only as a commonly used alternative. Evidence: insufficient.

Where to buy

Check the label first. Whatever you buy, look for these:

The plant part and the extract type or ratio on the label
A standardized amount of the active compounds, where relevant
A third-party testing mark (USP, NSF or ConsumerLab)
Interactions: ask a pharmacist if you take medicines, are pregnant or have a medical condition

Talk to a pharmacist or doctor before you start any supplement, especially if you take medicines. See the Safety tab for interactions.

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16benefits and uses looked at

124studies and sources checked

Moderate certaintybest evidence rating found

17lab markers tracked in trials

2 moderate certainty8 low certainty3 very low certainty3 not enough evidence

What was looked at

The 16 benefits and uses checked for Ginger, each with how strong the evidence is. Tap one to open it.

Memory and thinkingVery low certainty
Mood, anxiety, stress and fatigueNot enough evidence
Sleep and insomniaNot enough evidence
Migraine headacheLow certainty
Inflammation and oxidative stress markersLow certainty
Immune and allergy-type usesVery low certainty
Nausea and vomiting in pregnancyModerate certainty
Chemotherapy-induced nausea and vomitingLow certainty
Nausea and vomiting after surgeryLow certainty
Motion sickness and seasicknessNot enough evidence
Osteoarthritis painLow certainty
Period pain (primary dysmenorrhea)Moderate certainty
Blood sugar control (type 2 diabetes and overweight)Low certainty
Cholesterol and triglyceridesVery low certainty
Indigestion and stomach emptyingLow certainty
Muscle soreness after exerciseLow certainty

Lab markers tracked in the studies

C-reactive protein (CRP)TNF-alphaInterleukin-6 (IL-6)Erythrocyte sedimentation rate (ESR)White blood cell countAntioxidant and oxidative stress markers (MDA, SOD, total antioxidant capacity)P300 and N100 brain-response measures (EEG)Working memory (computerised tests)Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index (PSQI) and Insomnia Severity Index (ISI)Depression, anxiety, stress and fatigue ratingsMigraine pain severity and attack frequencyFasting blood sugarHbA1cTriglyceridesLDL cholesterolHDL cholesterolGastric half-emptying time

What is Ginger good for?

The main proposed uses and how strong the human evidence is for each. "Moderate" is the best rating any ginger use reached here. "Low", "very low" and "insufficient" mean few, small or conflicting trials. Nothing here is a proven treatment, and the ratings are this profile's reading of the reviews, not formal grades unless stated.

Nausea and vomiting in pregnancyModerate certaintySeveral pooled analyses find ginger eases nausea more than placebo and about as well as vitamin B6. It does not clearly cut the number of times women vomit. One review rated the evidence low quality and an umbrella review rated it high, so it is promising but not settled. The EU advises avoiding ginger medicines in pregnancy as a precaution, so ask a doctor or midwife first. Period pain (primary dysmenorrhea)Moderate certaintyPooled trials find less period pain than placebo, and results close to ordinary anti-inflammatory painkillers in two small trials without placebo. The trials differ a lot from one another, so the size of the benefit is uncertain. Chemotherapy-induced nausea and vomitingLow certaintyMixed. One 2024 trial of 103 people found less delayed nausea and vomiting when ginger was added to usual anti-sickness drugs, but no help for nausea on the first day. One review found no overall difference. Ginger was only tested as an add-on, so tell the cancer team before using it. Nausea and vomiting after surgeryLow certaintyPooled trials suggest less nausea in the hours after an operation, but vomiting was not clearly reduced and one network analysis found no clear nausea advantage. Ginger may affect bleeding, so tell the surgical team. Motion sickness and seasicknessNot enough evidenceTwo small placebo-controlled trials (a 1988 sea trial and a lab spinning-chair trial) were positive, while another small study found no protection. The EU lists powdered ginger before travel as a well-established use, but recent large trials are missing. Osteoarthritis painLow certaintyReviews disagree. A 2015 pooled analysis found a small pain benefit, and a 2020 review called the evidence insufficient. More people stopped ginger than placebo, and a 1 g a day trial found no benefit. Indigestion and stomach emptyingLow certaintyGinger sped up stomach emptying in two small single-dose studies, but symptoms did not change in those. One 2025 trial of a steamed ginger extract found better indigestion scores over 12 weeks. MigraineLow certaintyAdded to a standard painkiller during an attack, ginger helped in one small trial. As a daily preventive it did not beat placebo in the largest trial. A 2026 review rates the evidence low to very low and too uncertain to say whether ginger works. Blood sugar control (type 2 diabetes, overweight)Low certaintyReviews disagree. A 2022 review found lower fasting glucose and HbA1c, while a 2024 review of five trials found no significant pooled effect. Ginger is not a replacement for diabetes treatment. Cholesterol and triglyceridesVery low certaintySome pooled trials show lower triglycerides and perhaps total cholesterol, but LDL results are not consistent and an umbrella review rated the evidence very low. Changes in blood fats are not proof of heart benefit. Inflammation and antioxidant blood markersLow certaintyPooled trials show lower blood markers such as CRP and IL-6, mostly in people with health conditions, with big differences between studies. These are lab numbers, not proof that people feel better. Muscle soreness after exerciseLow certaintyTwo small trials from one group in healthy volunteers found about a quarter less soreness the day after hard arm exercise with 2 g a day for 11 days. Immune and allergy-type usesVery low certaintyOne trial found ginger extract as good as the antihistamine loratadine for hay-fever-type symptoms, but it had no placebo group. There is no solid evidence that ginger prevents or shortens infections. Memory and thinkingVery low certaintyOne small trial in 60 healthy middle-aged women found better working memory on ginger extract. A 2026 review that pooled curcumin, turmeric and ginger found a memory benefit but called it very uncertain. Ginger alone is barely tested, so mind and brain research is thin. Mood, anxiety, stress and fatigueNot enough evidenceNo good evidence that ginger lifts mood or reduces anxiety. The one placebo-controlled trial in healthy young adults found no difference. No trial tested people with depression or an anxiety disorder. Sleep and insomniaNot enough evidenceAlmost no research. Adding ginger to a warm foot bath did not help sleep more than plain warm water in one very small trial. Swallowed ginger has not been tested for sleep.

Benefits, one by one

Each card is a research question, not a promise. Tap a goal to filter. Open a card to see the studies, doses and limits.

Memory and thinking

Very low certainty

One small trial in healthy middle-aged women found better working memory and brain-response measures on ginger extract. A 2026 review pooled curcumin, turmeric and ginger trials together and found a memory benefit, but says the evidence is very uncertain. Ginger on its own is barely tested.

3 studiesExtract 400 or 800 mg once daily for 2 months (Saenghong 2012); extra…

Studies, doses and limits

What the trials found

Saenghong 2012 (60 healthy women, randomised to placebo, 400 mg or 800 mg ginger extract once daily for 2 months) reported faster brain-response timing (shorter P300 latency), larger N100 and P300 signals and better working memory in both ginger groups. Victoria-Montesinos 2026 (18 placebo-controlled trials of Zingiberaceae products, mostly not ginger-specific per the abstract) found a pooled memory benefit but no pooled benefit for executive function, global cognition or attention, and called the evidence very uncertain. A 2025 review of 9 animal studies (Olasehinde) supports the mechanism only.

Results

Weak and early. One small positive ginger trial and a mixed-product meta-analysis. No large trial of ginger alone for memory, and nothing in older adults with memory decline or dementia was found.

Effect sizes as reported

Memory-related outcomes pooled SMD 0.57 (95% CI 0.13 to 1.02) across mixed Zingiberaceae products (Victoria-Montesinos 2026); Saenghong 2012 gave no effect sizes in the abstract.

Why this rating

One small trial of 60 people, no replication, a pooled review the authors themselves call very uncertain (heterogeneity, risk of bias, mixed products), and no ginger-only analysis. This is the reviewers' wording, not a formal GRADE rating.

Form and dose studied

Extract 400 or 800 mg once daily for 2 months (Saenghong 2012); extract details beyond 'standardized' were not given in the abstract.

Who was studied

Healthy middle-aged women (Saenghong); adults in mixed populations (review).

Limits

Small samples; mixed products; no long-term or clinical (dementia) outcomes; effect on real-life memory not shown.

Why researchers looked

Ginger contains antioxidant and anti-inflammatory compounds, so researchers have asked whether it protects the brain.

Traditional use

Ginger has a long traditional use in Chinese, Indian and other medicine mostly for digestion, colds and pain; use for memory, mood or sleep is not a main traditional claim (stated as general background, not verified in this file).

Proposed mechanism Animal research

Lab and animal work on zingerone, a compound in cooked ginger, shows lower brain inflammation markers (IL-1 beta, IL-6, TNF-alpha), less oxidative stress and changes in serotonin, dopamine and acetylcholine signalling. This is animal evidence on an isolated compound, not proof for people.

A proposed mechanism does not show that the effect happens in people.

No safety signal in these cognition trials reported in the abstracts; see the safety file for ginger risks.

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Mood, anxiety, stress and fatigue

Not enough evidence

There is no good evidence that ginger lifts mood or reduces anxiety in people. The one placebo-controlled trial that measured depression, anxiety, stress and fatigue in healthy young adults found no difference from placebo. Animal work on one ginger compound is encouraging but is not proof.

4 studies1.2 g/day root powder (84 mg gingerols and shogaols) for 14 days (Cri…

Studies, doses and limits

What the trials found

Crichton 2023 (51 healthy adults aged 18 to 30, 1.2 g/day ginger root powder or placebo for 14 days) found no difference in depression, anxiety, stress, fatigue or quality of life. Khayat 2014 (70 women with premenstrual syndrome, 2 ginger capsules daily around menstruation for 3 cycles) found lower combined PMS symptom scores (mood, physical and behavioural together) versus control (P < 0.0001), but mood was not separated out and the control type is unclear. Zhong 2026 is a narrative review with no ginger-specific human data in the abstract. No trial of ginger in people with diagnosed depression or anxiety disorder was found.

Results

No effect in healthy adults; a possible mood-symptom benefit in PMS from one older small trial; no data in clinical depression or anxiety.

Effect sizes as reported

Crichton 2023: no between-group difference for mood or fatigue (numbers not in the abstract). Khayat 2014: P < 0.0001 for combined PMS scores (magnitude not in the abstract).

Why this rating

One null trial in healthy people, one small older PMS trial with a combined score, and no trials in depression or anxiety disorders.

Form and dose studied

1.2 g/day root powder (84 mg gingerols and shogaols) for 14 days (Crichton); 2 capsules daily around menstruation (Khayat; strength not in the abstract).

Who was studied

Healthy young adults; women with PMS.

Limits

Short, healthy participants with little to improve; mood measured as a secondary outcome; PMS result is not mood-specific.

Why researchers looked

Ginger's anti-inflammatory and antioxidant actions have led to questions about mood, because inflammation is linked to depression.

Traditional use

Not a traditional main use (see above).

Proposed mechanism Animal research

Animal studies of zingerone suggest less brain inflammation, less oxidative stress and higher serotonin and dopamine, with improved anxiety-like and depression-like behaviour in animals. A 2026 narrative review proposes similar pathways for culinary spices. Neither is evidence in people.

A proposed mechanism does not show that the effect happens in people.

No moderate or severe adverse events in the Crichton trial; see the safety file.

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Sleep and insomnia

Not enough evidence

Ginger has almost no sleep research. The one randomised trial found that adding ginger to a warm foot bath did not help sleep more than a plain warm foot bath. Swallowed ginger has not been tested for sleep.

1 studies80 g powdered ginger rhizome in 12 L of warm water, up to 20 minutes …

Studies, doses and limits

What the trials found

Kuderer 2022 (28 adults with insomnia symptoms, nightly foot baths for 2 weeks with 80 g powdered ginger in warm water vs warm water alone) found no difference in sleep quality (PSQI) or insomnia severity (ISI). Both groups improved. Warmth of the feet was perceived as higher only in the ginger group over time. No trial of oral ginger for sleep was found in the searches.

Results

No benefit over warm water. Oral ginger and sleep: untested.

Effect sizes as reported

PSQI between-group difference 0.0 (CI -3.0 to 2.9); ISI -0.2 (CI -3.9 to 3.4).

Why this rating

One very small trial of a topical use, and it was negative; nothing on oral ginger.

Form and dose studied

80 g powdered ginger rhizome in 12 L of warm water, up to 20 minutes nightly for 2 weeks (topical only).

Who was studied

Adults with self-reported insomnia symptoms.

Limits

28 people; a foot bath is not a supplement; warm water alone gave the same gain.

Why researchers looked

Warm ginger foot baths are a folk comfort for cold feet and poor sleep.

Traditional use

Ginger is used warm and warming in several traditions; this is general background, not verified here.

Proposed mechanism Pharmacological theory

No sleep mechanism has been shown. The researchers tested whether ginger warms the feet and improves heat regulation, which can ease falling asleep (a theory, not shown).

A proposed mechanism does not show that the effect happens in people.

The authors note the plain warm foot bath is cheaper and carries less risk.

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Migraine headache

Low certainty

For migraine attacks, ginger added to a standard painkiller helped in one small trial, and as a daily preventive it did not beat placebo in the largest trial. The newest review (2026) rates the evidence low to very low and says it is too uncertain to say whether ginger works. Migraine is covered here as a brain condition; general pain is covered under body use.

4 studiesExtract 400 mg once as add-on in an attack (Martins 2019); 600 mg/day…

Studies, doses and limits

What the trials found

Martins 2019 (60 adults in an emergency room, ginger extract 400 mg or placebo added to intravenous ketoprofen) found a better clinical response with ginger at 1 h, 1.5 h and 2 h. Martins 2020 (107 adults, 200 mg three times daily or placebo for 3 months) found no difference in responders or attacks, since both groups improved. Chen 2021 meta-analysis (3 trials) found higher pain-free rates at 2 h (RR 1.79) and lower pain score (MD -1.27), and concluded ginger is effective. Atkins 2026 (8 RCTs, 594 patients, GRADE and risk-of-bias assessed) found low certainty for add-on benefits (acute MD -1.27 from a single 60-person study; prevention as add-on to a drug MD -3.18 at 3 months from 2 studies) and very uncertain results for the other comparisons.

Results

Mixed. Short-term pain relief as an add-on to a standard drug; no benefit as a stand-alone preventive in the largest trial.

Effect sizes as reported

Acute pain score at 2 h MD -1.27 (CI -1.46 to -1.08, Atkins 2026); pain free at 2 h RR 1.79 (CI 1.04 to 3.09, Chen 2021); preventive add-on MD -3.18 (CI -3.94 to -2.42, 2 studies); stand-alone prevention: no difference (Martins 2020).

Why this rating

Reviewers' own GRADE statement (Atkins 2026): certainty ranged from low to very low; a few small trials, many testing ginger with another drug or herb.

Form and dose studied

Extract 400 mg once as add-on in an attack (Martins 2019); 600 mg/day for 3 months for prevention (Martins 2020).

Who was studied

Adults with episodic migraine.

Limits

Few small trials; ginger mostly tested as an add-on; the 2021 meta-analysis conclusion is stronger than the 2026 GRADE-rated one.

Why researchers looked

Ginger is anti-inflammatory and well known for settling nausea, which often comes with migraine.

Traditional use

Used in traditional medicine for headaches (general background, not verified here).

Proposed mechanism Preliminary mechanism

Ginger compounds block some inflammatory prostaglandin pathways and may affect serotonin receptors; shown mainly in lab work, not proven for migraine.

A proposed mechanism does not show that the effect happens in people.

Adverse events were not clearly different from control in Chen 2021 (RR 0.80); see the safety file.

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Inflammation and oxidative stress markers

Low certainty

Pooled trials show ginger supplements lower blood markers of inflammation (CRP, TNF-alpha, IL-6) and raise antioxidant markers, mostly in people with health conditions. These are lab numbers, not proof that people feel or live better, and the studies disagree a lot with each other.

3 studiesTypically 1 to 3 g/day (Paudel 2025); 1.5 g/day for 5 days in COVID-1…

Studies, doses and limits

What the trials found

Rjabi 2025 (29 RCTs, GRADE-assessed dose-response meta-analysis) found lower CRP, TNF-alpha, IL-6 and malondialdehyde and higher total antioxidant capacity and superoxide dismutase, with high heterogeneity and a non-linear dose and duration link for IL-6. Paudel 2025 (a review of earlier meta-analyses) reported lower CRP, hs-CRP and TNF-alpha and noted very high heterogeneity in one (I2 = 98.1%). Saleh 2025 (144 COVID-19 outpatients, 1.5 g/day ginger for 5 days) found larger drops in CRP and ESR than placebo, but no change in white blood cell count or LDH.

Results

Blood markers improve on average, but results are very mixed between trials, and benefit seems to be larger in people with underlying conditions.

Effect sizes as reported

CRP WMD -0.86 mg/L (CI -1.10 to -0.62); TNF-alpha -1.90 pg/mL (CI -2.61 to -1.18); IL-6 -1.15 pg/mL (CI -1.90 to -0.41); MDA -0.76 umol/L; TAC +0.22 mmol/L; SOD +48.12 U/L (Rjabi 2025).

Why this rating

High heterogeneity and a marker rather than symptom outcome; the reviewers advise caution. The abstract does not give formal GRADE ratings (null), so 'low' is this file's own conservative grade.

Form and dose studied

Typically 1 to 3 g/day (Paudel 2025); 1.5 g/day for 5 days in COVID-19 (Saleh 2025).

Who was studied

Adults, mainly with underlying conditions (including type 2 diabetes, which is covered in body use).

Limits

Lab markers only; heterogeneity; some trials in specific diseases.

Why researchers looked

Chronic low-grade inflammation and oxidative stress are linked to many long-term diseases, and ginger compounds (gingerols, shogaols) are anti-inflammatory in the lab.

Traditional use

Proposed mechanism Laboratory research

Gingerols and shogaols lower inflammatory signalling (including NF-kB) and oxidative stress in cell and animal studies; this is preliminary, not proof of clinical effect in people.

A proposed mechanism does not show that the effect happens in people.

See the safety file.

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Immune and allergy-type uses

Very low certainty

Ginger has been tried for COVID-19 (inflammation markers only) and for allergic rhinitis (hay fever type symptoms). One trial found ginger extract as good as the antihistamine loratadine for nasal symptoms, but with no placebo group. There is no solid evidence that ginger prevents or shortens infections.

2 studies500 mg ginger extract for 3 to 6 weeks (allergic rhinitis); 1.5 g/day…

Studies, doses and limits

What the trials found

Yamprasert 2020 (80 adults with allergic rhinitis, 500 mg ginger extract vs loratadine 10 mg for 3 and 6 weeks) found both lowered nasal symptom scores equally and improved quality of life, with fewer side effects with ginger (less drowsiness, fatigue, dizziness, constipation); no placebo arm. Saleh 2025 (144 COVID-19 outpatients) found lower CRP and ESR with ginger than placebo (p < 0.001) over 5 days but no change in white blood cell count or LDH, and reported no recovery outcome in the abstract. No trial of ginger preventing colds or flu was found in these searches.

Results

Allergic rhinitis: as good as loratadine in one trial without a placebo group. COVID-19: lower inflammation markers only.

Effect sizes as reported

Allergic rhinitis: no significant difference from loratadine. COVID-19 trial: CRP and ESR p < 0.001 vs placebo (values not in the abstract).

Why this rating

One 80-person trial with no placebo group and one short trial with marker-only outcomes.

Form and dose studied

500 mg ginger extract for 3 to 6 weeks (allergic rhinitis); 1.5 g/day for 5 days (COVID-19).

Who was studied

Adults with allergic rhinitis; COVID-19 outpatients in Iran.

Limits

No placebo in the allergy trial; markers only in COVID-19; single-country trials.

Why researchers looked

Ginger is widely taken in teas for colds and is anti-inflammatory and antimicrobial in lab studies.

Traditional use

Taken warm for colds and chills across many traditions (general background, not verified here).

Proposed mechanism Laboratory research

Ginger compounds have antiviral, antibacterial and anti-inflammatory activity in cell studies; effect on infections in people is unproven.

A proposed mechanism does not show that the effect happens in people.

Ginger was reported as safe as loratadine on kidney and liver blood tests in 6 weeks (Yamprasert 2020); see the safety file.

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Nausea and vomiting in pregnancy

Moderate certainty

Several pooled analyses of trials find that ginger eases the feeling of nausea in early pregnancy more than placebo. It does not clearly cut the number of times women vomit. Ginger was not clearly different from vitamin B6. Evidence quality is rated low by one review and high by an umbrella review, so treat it as promising but not settled.

4 studiesRoughly 1 g/day or less in divided doses in many trials; the best dos…

Studies, doses and limits

What the trials found

Viljoen 2014 pooled 12 RCTs (1278 women): nausea improved versus placebo (MD 1.20, 95% CI 0.56-1.84) but vomiting episodes did not significantly change (MD 0.72, 95% CI -0.03 to 1.46); a lower daily dose (under 1500 mg) seemed to work better for nausea; no significant increase in miscarriage, heartburn or drowsiness, though the miscarriage interval was wide (RR 3.14, 95% CI 0.65-15.11). Hu 2022 pooled 13 studies (1174): nausea improved versus placebo (SMD 0.821, 95% CI 0.585-1.056), vomiting did not, and there was no significant difference versus vitamin B6. The 2016 JAMA review of 78 studies reported that ginger was associated with improved symptoms versus placebo in low-risk-of-bias RCTs. The 2022 umbrella review graded this the strongest evidence for ginger (large effect, GRADE high).

Results

Nausea improved; vomiting not clearly changed; about as good as vitamin B6.

Effect sizes as reported

Viljoen: nausea MD 1.20 (0.56-1.84); vomiting MD 0.72 (-0.03 to 1.46). Hu: nausea SMD 0.821 (0.585-1.056); vs B6 nausea SMD 0.199 (-0.102 to 0.500).

Why this rating

The reviewers disagree on quality: Viljoen called it low-quality evidence with few studies, while the umbrella review graded it high. Consistency across several reviews on nausea supports a moderate rating. This rating is the compiler's.

Form and dose studied

Roughly 1 g/day or less in divided doses in many trials; the best dose and form are not settled (a lower dose under 1500 mg/day looked better in one subgroup).

Who was studied

Pregnant women with nausea and vomiting.

Limits

Vomiting benefit unproven; high variability between trials (vomiting I2 71% to 91%); miscarriage safety interval wide; the abstracts do not cover severe hyperemesis.

Why researchers looked

Morning sickness is very common and many women want options besides drugs.

Traditional use

Ginger rhizome is a long-standing remedy for upset stomach and nausea in many food and medical traditions. This is general knowledge and is not verified from a specific source read for this file.

Proposed mechanism Pharmacological theory

Ginger is thought to act on the stomach and gut nerves. Lab and mechanism work is outside this file's reading; the abstracts here do not test mechanisms.

A proposed mechanism does not show that the effect happens in people.

Ask a doctor or midwife before using ginger in pregnancy, especially in larger doses or for severe vomiting. Ginger is generally described as well tolerated, with mostly mild stomach effects; see the safety file for blood-thinner and pre-surgery cautions.

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Chemotherapy-induced nausea and vomiting

Low certainty

Results are mixed. One 2024 trial of 103 people found less delayed nausea and vomiting and better quality of life when ginger was added to usual anti-sickness drugs. One review found no overall difference in nausea, and another found benefit mainly for severe nausea and vomiting. Ginger has only been tested as an add-on, never a replacement, and patients should tell their cancer team before using it.

4 studiesCapsules: 84 mg/day gingerols and shogaols (standardized) for 5 days;…

Studies, doses and limits

What the trials found

Crichton 2024 RCT (n=103, 84 mg/day gingerols and shogaols for 5 days per cycle, cycles 1 to 3): nausea-related quality of life, delayed nausea severity and fatigue favoured ginger; delayed nausea in cycle 3 was 49% vs 79% and delayed vomiting 2% vs 23%; no effect on anticipatory or acute symptoms; no serious adverse events. Choi 2022 pooled 23 RCTs: overall acute and delayed nausea and delayed vomiting not significantly different (p=0.53, 0.31, 0.89); a subgroup taking up to 1 g/day for over 4 days had less acute vomiting (OR 0.30, 95% CI 0.12-0.79). Lin 2025 pooled 35 RCTs (22 capsule trials): ginger capsules with antiemetics lowered grade 3 acute nausea (RR 0.19) and high-grade vomiting (RR 0.47).

Results

Possible help with delayed nausea in one good trial; pooled results disagree.

Effect sizes as reported

Choi subgroup: acute vomiting OR 0.30 (0.12-0.79). Lin: grade 3 acute nausea RR 0.19 (P<0.001); vomiting RR 0.47 (P=0.01). Crichton: nausea QoL P=0.003.

Why this rating

One well-run 103-person trial with positive secondary findings, two reviews that disagree, and results that depend on subgroup choices. No clear dose or timing. This rating is the compiler's.

Form and dose studied

Capsules: 84 mg/day gingerols and shogaols (standardized) for 5 days; reviews mention up to 1 g/day for over 4 days. Ginger-partitioned moxibustion in Lin 2025 is a different (external) use.

Who was studied

Adults on moderately to highly emetogenic chemotherapy.

Limits

Add-on only; acute nausea not helped in the trial; reviews pool different doses and drugs; some reviews included moxibustion.

Why researchers looked

Nausea is one of the most feared side effects of chemotherapy and does not always respond fully to standard drugs.

Traditional use

Ginger rhizome is a long-standing remedy for upset stomach and nausea in many food and medical traditions. This is general knowledge and is not verified from a specific source read for this file.

Proposed mechanism Pharmacological theory

No mechanism is tested in the abstracts read.

A proposed mechanism does not show that the effect happens in people.

Ginger can affect clotting and may interact with some cancer drugs; never start it without the oncology team's approval. Ginger is generally described as well tolerated, with mostly mild stomach effects; see the safety file for blood-thinner and pre-surgery cautions.

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Nausea and vomiting after surgery

Low certainty

Pooled trials suggest ginger may lower nausea in the hours after an operation, but it did not clearly reduce actual vomiting, and a network analysis found no clear nausea advantage. Evidence is mixed and low to moderate. Always ask the surgical team before taking ginger around an operation.

4 studiesDoses not given in the abstracts; powder and oil preparations differ;…

Studies, doses and limits

What the trials found

Lu 2022 pooled 14 RCTs (1506 patients): nausea scores were lower with ginger at 2, 6 and 12 hours (SMD -1.10, -1.54, -2.04, with wide intervals), but vomiting and overall antiemetic use were not significantly different. Zhu 2021 pooled 14 studies (1417): nausea severity MD -0.71 (95% CI -1.37 to -0.06) and rescue antiemetic use lower than placebo; vomiting incidence not significantly different; versus standard antiemetics, lower nausea incidence (RR 0.75, 95% CI 0.56-0.99). Zhao 2023 network meta-analysis (18 publications, 2199 participants): ginger oil ranked best for vomiting (RR 0.39, 95% CI 0.16-0.96) but no clear advantage for nausea.

Results

Less nausea in two reviews, not in a third; vomiting mostly unchanged.

Effect sizes as reported

Lu: nausea SMD -1.10 (-1.95 to -0.25) at 2 h. Zhu: nausea severity MD -0.71 (-1.37 to -0.06). Zhao: ginger oil vomiting RR 0.39 (0.16-0.96).

Why this rating

Three reviews disagree on which outcome benefits (nausea versus vomiting). Wide intervals and mixed preparations. This rating is the compiler's.

Form and dose studied

Doses not given in the abstracts; powder and oil preparations differ; preoperative dosing appeared better in one analysis.

Who was studied

Adults having surgery (several surgery types).

Limits

Different preparations and timings; conflicting results; authors request higher-quality trials.

Why researchers looked

Postoperative nausea is common and can delay recovery, and ginger is a low-cost option.

Traditional use

Ginger rhizome is a long-standing remedy for upset stomach and nausea in many food and medical traditions. This is general knowledge and is not verified from a specific source read for this file.

Proposed mechanism Pharmacological theory

No mechanism is tested in the abstracts read.

A proposed mechanism does not show that the effect happens in people.

Ginger may affect bleeding; tell the surgical team and follow pre-surgery guidance in the safety file. Ginger is generally described as well tolerated, with mostly mild stomach effects; see the safety file for blood-thinner and pre-surgery cautions.

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Motion sickness and seasickness

Not enough evidence

Older, small trials suggest ginger can reduce symptoms in motion sickness, but there are no recent large placebo-controlled trials. One 1988 sea trial and one lab spinning-chair trial are positive; a big 1994 whale-watching study had no placebo, so it only shows ginger was similar to other remedies. Evidence is thin.

4 studies1 g powder (sea trial); 1000-2000 mg (lab trial); 160 mg extract (ope…

Studies, doses and limits

What the trials found

Lien 2003 (n=13, crossover, circular vection): 1000 and 2000 mg of ginger reduced nausea, tachygastria and vasopressin, and delayed nausea onset. Grontved 1988 (n=80 naval cadets, 1 g): less vomiting and cold sweating than placebo (p<0.05), Protection Index 72% for vomiting; nausea and vertigo not significantly different. Schmid 1994 (n=1741, no placebo): ginger was one of seven agents and 4.1-10.2% vomited in each active group with no significant differences. Nunes 2020 (n=184, open-label, 160 mg extract): about 27-30% improved by 20+ MSAQ points on treated trips; 13.04% had treatment-related side effects.

Results

Possible reduction of nausea, vomiting and sweating; effect not firmly proven.

Effect sizes as reported

Grontved: vomiting Protection Index 72%; overall 38%. Nunes: 26.52%, 29.89%, 29.31% improved 20+ MSAQ points.

Why this rating

Only two small placebo-controlled trials (one lab, one 1988 sea trial), one trial with no placebo, and one uncontrolled study. NOT verified: other older trials (for example airline or boat studies reported as negative) were not read for this file. This rating is the compiler's.

Form and dose studied

1 g powder (sea trial); 1000-2000 mg (lab trial); 160 mg extract (open-label).

Who was studied

Healthy volunteers, naval cadets, tourists and people with motion sickness.

Limits

Old, small, mostly short; no modern blinded trial in real travel; one study uncontrolled.

Why researchers looked

Ginger is a traditional travel remedy and appeals as a non-drowsy option.

Traditional use

Ginger rhizome is a long-standing remedy for upset stomach and nausea in many food and medical traditions. This is general knowledge and is not verified from a specific source read for this file.

Proposed mechanism Preliminary mechanism

In the 13-volunteer spinning test, ginger lowered abnormal fast stomach rhythm and the stress hormone vasopressin during induced nausea. This is a small mechanism-style human study, not proof of how it works in travel.

A proposed mechanism does not show that the effect happens in people.

Stomach upset was the main side effect in the 2020 study. Ginger is generally described as well tolerated, with mostly mild stomach effects; see the safety file for blood-thinner and pre-surgery cautions.

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Osteoarthritis pain

Low certainty

Ginger may modestly ease knee and other osteoarthritis pain, but reviews disagree: a 2015 pooled analysis found a small benefit, while a 2020 review found the evidence insufficient. The effect, if real, is small, and more people dropped out of the ginger groups.

3 studiesDoses not given in the abstracts; capsules and topical forms were stu…

Studies, doses and limits

What the trials found

Bartels 2015 pooled 5 placebo-controlled RCTs (593 people): pain SMD -0.30 (95% CI -0.50 to -0.09) and disability SMD -0.22 (95% CI -0.39 to -0.04); people on ginger were more than twice as likely to stop treatment (RR 2.33, 95% CI 1.04-5.22); authors judged evidence of moderate quality. Araya-Quintanilla 2020 pooled 4 knee studies: pain 7.88 mm lower on a 100 mm scale with capsules versus placebo, function not significantly changed, and the authors concluded the evidence is insufficient because trials were heterogeneous and poor quality. The 2022 umbrella review graded OA analgesia as a small effect with GRADE high.

Results

Small pain reduction; reviewers disagree on whether the evidence is enough.

Effect sizes as reported

Bartels: pain SMD -0.30 (-0.50 to -0.09). Araya-Quintanilla: pain MD -7.88 mm.

Why this rating

Two reviews reach different conclusions about the same trials; trials are few and small; dropout was higher on ginger. The umbrella review's GRADE high is more optimistic than the individual reviews. This rating is the compiler's.

Form and dose studied

Doses not given in the abstracts; capsules and topical forms were studied.

Who was studied

Adults with osteoarthritis, mostly knee.

Limits

Few trials; mixed forms; inadequate intention-to-treat analysis in several; benefit small.

Why researchers looked

Ginger has anti-inflammatory laboratory effects, and osteoarthritis pain is common and long-lasting.

Traditional use

Ginger rhizome is a long-standing remedy for upset stomach and nausea in many food and medical traditions. This is general knowledge and is not verified from a specific source read for this file.

Proposed mechanism Pharmacological theory

Anti-inflammatory action is the usual theory; the abstracts here do not measure it in joints.

A proposed mechanism does not show that the effect happens in people.

Stomach upset is a likely reason for higher dropout (the abstract does not say). Ginger is generally described as well tolerated, with mostly mild stomach effects; see the safety file for blood-thinner and pre-surgery cautions.

^{11 7 21}

Period pain (primary dysmenorrhea)

Moderate certainty

Pooled trials find ginger reduces period pain more than placebo and about as well as ordinary anti-inflammatory painkillers. Results vary a lot between trials, so the size of the benefit is uncertain.

3 studies750-2000 mg ginger powder daily during the first 3-4 days of the peri…

Studies, doses and limits

What the trials found

Moshfeghinia 2024 pooled 12 of 24 studies: pain intensity SMD -1.13 (95% CI -1.59 to -0.68; I2 81%) and pain duration SMD -0.29 (95% CI -0.46 to -0.12) versus placebo; no difference from NSAIDs (SMD 0.01, 95% CI -0.24 to 0.25) or exercise. Daily 2015 pooled 4 RCTs on 750-2000 mg powder in the first 3-4 days of the period: pain VAS -1.85 (95% CI -2.87 to -0.84). The umbrella review rated this low to moderate certainty.

Results

Less period pain than placebo; similar to NSAIDs.

Effect sizes as reported

Moshfeghinia: intensity SMD -1.13 (-1.59 to -0.68); Daily: VAS -1.85 (-2.87 to -0.84).

Why this rating

Two reviews point the same way and compare well with NSAIDs, but heterogeneity is high (I2 81%) and risk of bias is present. This rating is the compiler's.

Form and dose studied

750-2000 mg ginger powder daily during the first 3-4 days of the period (Daily 2015).

Who was studied

Women with primary dysmenorrhea.

Limits

High heterogeneity; mostly small trials; safety rarely reported.

Why researchers looked

Many women look for alternatives to ibuprofen-type drugs for monthly cramps.

Traditional use

Ginger rhizome is a long-standing remedy for upset stomach and nausea in many food and medical traditions. This is general knowledge and is not verified from a specific source read for this file.

Proposed mechanism Pharmacological theory

Ginger is thought to block inflammatory chemicals involved in cramps; the abstracts here do not test this.

A proposed mechanism does not show that the effect happens in people.

Safety data are infrequently reported in the reviews. Seek care if pain is severe or new. Ginger is generally described as well tolerated, with mostly mild stomach effects; see the safety file for blood-thinner and pre-surgery cautions.

^{68 24 21}

Blood sugar control (type 2 diabetes and overweight)

Low certainty

Reviews disagree. A larger 2022 review found lower fasting glucose and HbA1c in type 2 diabetes, while a 2024 review of five trials found no significant pooled effect. Ginger is not a replacement for diabetes treatment.

4 studies1.2-2 g/day ginger powder for 4-12 weeks in the pooled trials.

Studies, doses and limits

What the trials found

Ebrahimzadeh 2022 pooled 10 articles in type 2 diabetes: fasting glucose WMD -18.81 (95% CI -28.70 to -8.92; I2 77.4%) and HbA1c WMD -0.57 (95% CI -0.93 to -0.20; I2 88.6%). Schumacher 2024 pooled 5 studies (1.2 to 2 g/day, 4 to 12 weeks): no significant effect on fasting glucose or HbA1c, though two studies showed a fasting glucose drop. Maharlouei 2019 (14 RCTs, 473 overweight or obese adults): fasting glucose SMD -0.68 (95% CI -1.23 to -0.05) and HOMA-IR SMD -1.67 (95% CI -2.86 to -0.48), insulin not significantly changed. The umbrella review graded glycemic control as very low to moderate.

Results

Possible lowering of fasting glucose and HbA1c, but not consistent.

Effect sizes as reported

Ebrahimzadeh: FBS WMD -18.81, HbA1c WMD -0.57. Schumacher: no pooled effect. Maharlouei: glucose SMD -0.68.

Why this rating

Very high heterogeneity (I2 77-89%); two reviews conflict; trials small. This rating is the compiler's.

Form and dose studied

1.2-2 g/day ginger powder for 4-12 weeks in the pooled trials.

Who was studied

Adults with type 2 diabetes; overweight or obese adults.

Limits

Heterogeneous products; short trials; HbA1c needs about 12 weeks to reflect change.

Why researchers looked

Ginger has been studied as a food-based way to improve blood sugar.

Traditional use

Ginger rhizome is a long-standing remedy for upset stomach and nausea in many food and medical traditions. This is general knowledge and is not verified from a specific source read for this file.

Proposed mechanism Pharmacological theory

No mechanism tested in the abstracts read.

A proposed mechanism does not show that the effect happens in people.

Ginger may add to the effect of diabetes medicines; people on glucose-lowering drugs should tell their doctor. Ginger is generally described as well tolerated, with mostly mild stomach effects; see the safety file for blood-thinner and pre-surgery cautions.

^{32 96 62 21}

Cholesterol and triglycerides

Very low certainty

Some pooled trials show ginger lowers triglycerides and perhaps total cholesterol; LDL results are not consistent. Overall evidence is weak and the umbrella review rated it very low.

4 studies2 g/day or less looked more effective in one review; a higher dose lo…

Studies, doses and limits

What the trials found

Pourmasoumi 2018 pooled 12 trials (586 people): triglycerides -17.59 mg/dl (95% CI -29.32 to -5.87); LDL-C -4.90 mg/dl (printed interval -22.30 to -6.17, which does not contain the estimate, so treat the LDL figure with caution); at 2 g/day or less, total cholesterol -12.26 mg/dl and triglycerides -38.42 mg/dl. Salih 2023: total cholesterol SMD -0.44 (95% CI -0.86 to -0.02) and triglycerides SMD -0.61 (95% CI -1.14 to -0.08); LDL and HDL not significantly changed. Ebrahimzadeh 2022 (type 2 diabetes): no change in lipids.

Results

Triglycerides lower in two reviews; LDL and HDL unchanged or unclear.

Effect sizes as reported

Pourmasoumi: TAG -17.59 mg/dl. Salih: TG SMD -0.61.

Why this rating

Borderline intervals, high heterogeneity, inconsistency between reviews, an inconsistent printed interval for LDL, and a diabetes-only review that found nothing. Umbrella review graded it very low. This rating is the compiler's.

Form and dose studied

2 g/day or less looked more effective in one review; a higher dose lowered total cholesterol more in another meta-regression. These conflict.

Who was studied

Adults, including obese and diabetic groups.

Limits

Surrogate lab outcomes only; no heart-attack or stroke data.

Why researchers looked

Ginger is studied as a food-based lipid-lowering aid.

Traditional use

Ginger rhizome is a long-standing remedy for upset stomach and nausea in many food and medical traditions. This is general knowledge and is not verified from a specific source read for this file.

Proposed mechanism Pharmacological theory

No mechanism tested in the abstracts read.

A proposed mechanism does not show that the effect happens in people.

Lipid change is not proof of heart benefit. Ginger is generally described as well tolerated, with mostly mild stomach effects; see the safety file for blood-thinner and pre-surgery cautions.

^{87 94 32 21}

Indigestion and stomach emptying

Low certainty

Ginger speeds up stomach emptying in two small studies, but no symptom benefit was seen in those. A 2025 trial of a steamed ginger extract found better symptom scores in functional dyspepsia over 12 weeks. Only one trial has shown symptom relief.

3 studies1.2 g single dose (emptying studies); 480 mg/day steamed extract for …

Studies, doses and limits

What the trials found

Wu 2008 (n=24 healthy volunteers, 1200 mg single dose): half-emptying time 13.1 vs 26.7 min (P<0.01) and more antral contractions, no symptom difference. Hu 2011 (n=11 patients with functional dyspepsia, 1.2 g single dose): half-emptying 12.3 vs 16.1 min (P<=0.05), symptoms and GLP-1, motilin and ghrelin unchanged. Baek 2025 (n=80, steamed ginger extract GGE03 480 mg/day for 12 weeks): GSRS total and sub-scores (abdominal pain, constipation, indigestion, reflux) improved more than placebo (p<0.001) and some SF-36 domains improved. A 2019 review of ginger in gut disorders found limited evidence beyond nausea.

Results

Faster stomach emptying; symptom relief shown in one small branded-extract trial.

Effect sizes as reported

Wu: half-emptying 13.1 vs 26.7 min. Hu: 12.3 vs 16.1 min. Baek: GSRS p<0.001.

Why this rating

Emptying studies are tiny single-dose trials without symptom benefit; the symptom trial is single, with a branded extract. This rating is the compiler's.

Form and dose studied

1.2 g single dose (emptying studies); 480 mg/day steamed extract for 12 weeks (symptom trial).

Who was studied

Healthy volunteers; patients with functional dyspepsia.

Limits

Small, short; one branded extract; the 2019 review says more dose-finding is needed.

Why researchers looked

Slow stomach emptying may contribute to fullness and nausea, and ginger is used as a digestive aid.

Traditional use

Ginger rhizome is a long-standing remedy for upset stomach and nausea in many food and medical traditions. This is general knowledge and is not verified from a specific source read for this file.

Proposed mechanism Preliminary mechanism

Ultrasound studies show faster stomach emptying and more stomach contractions after ginger.

A proposed mechanism does not show that the effect happens in people.

Acid reflux or heartburn can occur with ginger in some people (not reported in these abstracts); in the 2025 trial no clinically meaningful safety changes were found. Ginger is generally described as well tolerated, with mostly mild stomach effects; see the safety file for blood-thinner and pre-surgery cautions.

^{115 41 10}

Muscle soreness after exercise

Low certainty

One pair of small trials found about a quarter less muscle soreness the day after hard arm exercise when people took 2 g of ginger daily for 11 days. This is exercise-induced soreness in healthy people, not a disease.

1 studies2 g/day raw or heated ginger for 11 days.

Studies, doses and limits

What the trials found

Black 2010 (two RCTs; n=34 raw ginger and n=40 heated ginger; 2 g/day for 11 days): raw ginger lowered pain 24 hours after eccentric exercise by 25% (-0.78 SD, P=0.041) and heated ginger by 23% (-0.57 SD, P=0.049) versus placebo; smaller effects on other measures.

Results

About 23-25% less soreness at 24 hours.

Effect sizes as reported

Raw -0.78 SD (P=0.041); heated -0.57 SD (P=0.049).

Why this rating

Two small trials from one group in healthy young volunteers; soreness induced in a lab. This rating is the compiler's.

Form and dose studied

2 g/day raw or heated ginger for 11 days.

Who was studied

Healthy volunteers.

Limits

Not a clinical condition; small; one research group.

Why researchers looked

Ginger is anti-inflammatory in the lab and used for pain.

Traditional use

Ginger rhizome is a long-standing remedy for upset stomach and nausea in many food and medical traditions. This is general knowledge and is not verified from a specific source read for this file.

Proposed mechanism Pharmacological theory

Plasma prostaglandin E2 was measured; the abstract does not report its change, so no mechanism is claimed.

A proposed mechanism does not show that the effect happens in people.

Ginger is generally described as well tolerated, with mostly mild stomach effects; see the safety file for blood-thinner and pre-surgery cautions.

¹²

Connections to the rest of health

How Ginger connects to the rest of our health knowledge graph. Every link says what kind of connection it is. A safety link (for example to the liver) is a warning, not a benefit. A study that merely mentions a topic never creates a benefit link.

Explore every connection: goals, body systems, organs, symptoms, genes

Kind of connection Connected to Search

A. Wellness goals

Connected to	Kind of connection	Evidence status	Context	Studies
Memory Support	Preliminary mechanism	Very low certainty	Memory and thinking: One small trial in healthy middle-aged women found better working memory and brain-response measures on ginger extract. A 2026 review pooled curcumin, turmeric and ginger trials together and found a memory benefit, but says the evidence is very uncertain. Ginger on its own is barely tested.	^{92 108 80}
Cognitive Performance	Preliminary mechanism	Very low certainty	Memory and thinking: One small trial in healthy middle-aged women found better working memory and brain-response measures on ginger extract. A 2026 review pooled curcumin, turmeric and ginger trials together and found a memory benefit, but says the evidence is very uncertain. Ginger on its own is barely tested.	^{92 108 80}
Brain Health	Preliminary mechanism	Very low certainty	Memory and thinking: One small trial in healthy middle-aged women found better working memory and brain-response measures on ginger extract. A 2026 review pooled curcumin, turmeric and ginger trials together and found a memory benefit, but says the evidence is very uncertain. Ginger on its own is barely tested.	^{92 108 80}
Mood Balance	Preliminary mechanism	Not enough evidence	Mood, anxiety, stress and fatigue: There is no good evidence that ginger lifts mood or reduces anxiety in people. The one placebo-controlled trial that measured depression, anxiety, stress and fatigue in healthy young adults found no difference from placebo. Animal work on one ginger compound is encouraging but is not proof.	^{22 45 80 122}
Anxiety Support	Preliminary mechanism	Not enough evidence	Mood, anxiety, stress and fatigue: There is no good evidence that ginger lifts mood or reduces anxiety in people. The one placebo-controlled trial that measured depression, anxiety, stress and fatigue in healthy young adults found no difference from placebo. Animal work on one ginger compound is encouraging but is not proof.	^{22 45 80 122}
Stress Reduction	Preliminary mechanism	Not enough evidence	Mood, anxiety, stress and fatigue: There is no good evidence that ginger lifts mood or reduces anxiety in people. The one placebo-controlled trial that measured depression, anxiety, stress and fatigue in healthy young adults found no difference from placebo. Animal work on one ginger compound is encouraging but is not proof.	^{22 45 80 122}
Reduce Fatigue	Preliminary mechanism	Not enough evidence	Mood, anxiety, stress and fatigue: There is no good evidence that ginger lifts mood or reduces anxiety in people. The one placebo-controlled trial that measured depression, anxiety, stress and fatigue in healthy young adults found no difference from placebo. Animal work on one ginger compound is encouraging but is not proof.	^{22 45 80 122}
Better Sleep	Traditional use	Not enough evidence	Sleep and insomnia: Ginger has almost no sleep research. The one randomised trial found that adding ginger to a warm foot bath did not help sleep more than a plain warm foot bath. Swallowed ginger has not been tested for sleep.	⁵⁰
Sleep Quality	Traditional use	Not enough evidence	Sleep and insomnia: Ginger has almost no sleep research. The one randomised trial found that adding ginger to a warm foot bath did not help sleep more than a plain warm foot bath. Swallowed ginger has not been tested for sleep.	⁵⁰
Brain Health	Potential benefit	Low certainty	Migraine headache: For migraine attacks, ginger added to a standard painkiller helped in one small trial, and as a daily preventive it did not beat placebo in the largest trial. The newest review (2026) rates the evidence low to very low and says it is too uncertain to say whether ginger works. Migraine is covered here as a brain condition; general pain is covered under body use.	^{63 64 17 9}
Inflammation Balance	Biological association	Low certainty	Inflammation and oxidative stress markers: Pooled trials show ginger supplements lower blood markers of inflammation (CRP, TNF-alpha, IL-6) and raise antioxidant markers, mostly in people with health conditions. These are lab numbers, not proof that people feel or live better, and the studies disagree a lot with each other.	^{90 82 93}
Immune Support	Biological association	Low certainty	Inflammation and oxidative stress markers: Pooled trials show ginger supplements lower blood markers of inflammation (CRP, TNF-alpha, IL-6) and raise antioxidant markers, mostly in people with health conditions. These are lab numbers, not proof that people feel or live better, and the studies disagree a lot with each other.	^{90 82 93}
Immune Support	Potential benefit	Very low certainty	Immune and allergy-type uses: Ginger has been tried for COVID-19 (inflammation markers only) and for allergic rhinitis (hay fever type symptoms). One trial found ginger extract as good as the antihistamine loratadine for nasal symptoms, but with no placebo group. There is no solid evidence that ginger prevents or shortens infections.	^{116 93}
Womens Wellness	Demonstrated clinical effect	Moderate certainty	Nausea and vomiting in pregnancy: Several pooled analyses of trials find that ginger eases the feeling of nausea in early pregnancy more than placebo. It does not clearly cut the number of times women vomit. Ginger was not clearly different from vitamin B6. Evidence quality is rated low by one review and high by an umbrella review, so treat it as promising but not settled. Period pain (primary dysmenorrhea): Pooled trials find ginger reduces period pain more than placebo and about as well as ordinary anti-inflammatory painkillers. Results vary a lot between trials, so the size of the benefit is uncertain.	^{109 42 66 21 68 24}
Digestive Support	Demonstrated clinical effect	Moderate certainty	Nausea and vomiting in pregnancy: Several pooled analyses of trials find that ginger eases the feeling of nausea in early pregnancy more than placebo. It does not clearly cut the number of times women vomit. Ginger was not clearly different from vitamin B6. Evidence quality is rated low by one review and high by an umbrella review, so treat it as promising but not settled.	^{109 42 66 21}
Digestive Support	Potential benefit	Low certainty	Chemotherapy-induced nausea and vomiting: Results are mixed. One 2024 trial of 103 people found less delayed nausea and vomiting and better quality of life when ginger was added to usual anti-sickness drugs. One review found no overall difference in nausea, and another found benefit mainly for severe nausea and vomiting. Ginger has only been tested as an add-on, never a replacement, and patients should tell their cancer team before using it. Nausea and vomiting after surgery: Pooled trials suggest ginger may lower nausea in the hours after an operation, but it did not clearly reduce actual vomiting, and a network analysis found no clear nausea advantage. Evidence is mixed and low to moderate. Always ask the surgical team before taking ginger around an operation.	^{23 19 56 21 58 123 121 55 36 95 77 115 41 10}
Energy Boost	Potential benefit	Low certainty	Chemotherapy-induced nausea and vomiting: Results are mixed. One 2024 trial of 103 people found less delayed nausea and vomiting and better quality of life when ginger was added to usual anti-sickness drugs. One review found no overall difference in nausea, and another found benefit mainly for severe nausea and vomiting. Ginger has only been tested as an add-on, never a replacement, and patients should tell their cancer team before using it.	^{23 19 56 21}
Calm Relaxation	Potential benefit	Not enough evidence	Motion sickness and seasickness: Older, small trials suggest ginger can reduce symptoms in motion sickness, but there are no recent large placebo-controlled trials. One 1988 sea trial and one lab spinning-chair trial are positive; a big 1994 whale-watching study had no placebo, so it only shows ginger was similar to other remedies. Evidence is thin.	^{55 36 95 77}
Joint Support	Potential benefit	Low certainty	Osteoarthritis pain: Ginger may modestly ease knee and other osteoarthritis pain, but reviews disagree: a 2015 pooled analysis found a small benefit, while a 2020 review found the evidence insufficient. The effect, if real, is small, and more people dropped out of the ginger groups.	^{11 7 21}
Inflammation Balance	Potential benefit	Low certainty	Osteoarthritis pain: Ginger may modestly ease knee and other osteoarthritis pain, but reviews disagree: a 2015 pooled analysis found a small benefit, while a 2020 review found the evidence insufficient. The effect, if real, is small, and more people dropped out of the ginger groups.	^{11 7 21}
Joint Support	Demonstrated clinical effect	Moderate certainty	Period pain (primary dysmenorrhea): Pooled trials find ginger reduces period pain more than placebo and about as well as ordinary anti-inflammatory painkillers. Results vary a lot between trials, so the size of the benefit is uncertain.	^{68 24 21}
Blood Sugar Balance	Potential benefit	Low certainty	Blood sugar control (type 2 diabetes and overweight): Reviews disagree. A larger 2022 review found lower fasting glucose and HbA1c in type 2 diabetes, while a 2024 review of five trials found no significant pooled effect. Ginger is not a replacement for diabetes treatment.	^{32 96 62 21}
Metabolic Health	Potential benefit	Low certainty	Blood sugar control (type 2 diabetes and overweight): Reviews disagree. A larger 2022 review found lower fasting glucose and HbA1c in type 2 diabetes, while a 2024 review of five trials found no significant pooled effect. Ginger is not a replacement for diabetes treatment. Cholesterol and triglycerides: Some pooled trials show ginger lowers triglycerides and perhaps total cholesterol; LDL results are not consistent. Overall evidence is weak and the umbrella review rated it very low.	^{32 96 62 21 87 94}
Cholesterol Balance	Potential benefit	Very low certainty	Cholesterol and triglycerides: Some pooled trials show ginger lowers triglycerides and perhaps total cholesterol; LDL results are not consistent. Overall evidence is weak and the umbrella review rated it very low.	^{87 94 32 21}
Heart Health	Potential benefit	Very low certainty	Cholesterol and triglycerides: Some pooled trials show ginger lowers triglycerides and perhaps total cholesterol; LDL results are not consistent. Overall evidence is weak and the umbrella review rated it very low.	^{87 94 32 21}
Gut Health	Potential benefit	Low certainty	Indigestion and stomach emptying: Ginger speeds up stomach emptying in two small studies, but no symptom benefit was seen in those. A 2025 trial of a steamed ginger extract found better symptom scores in functional dyspepsia over 12 weeks. Only one trial has shown symptom relief.	^{115 41 10}
Muscle Recovery	Potential benefit	Low certainty	Muscle soreness after exercise: One pair of small trials found about a quarter less muscle soreness the day after hard arm exercise when people took 2 g of ginger daily for 11 days. This is exercise-induced soreness in healthy people, not a disease.	¹²
Physical Stamina	Potential benefit	Low certainty	Muscle soreness after exercise: One pair of small trials found about a quarter less muscle soreness the day after hard arm exercise when people took 2 g of ginger daily for 11 days. This is exercise-induced soreness in healthy people, not a disease.	¹²

B. Body systems

Connected to	Kind of connection	Evidence status	Context	Studies
Digestive system	Adverse effect or risk	Low certainty	Heartburn, stomach upset and diarrhea are the common mild effects (EU monograph, open-label study). Heartburn, stomach upset and diarrhea are the common mild effects. Preparation or compound: Powder, capsules and extracts	^{34 8 74}
Cardiovascular system	Drug or supplement interaction	Very low certainty	Possible additive bleeding effect with warfarin or antiplatelet drugs; evidence is one case, one negative trial and lab tests. Possible extra bleeding with warfarin or antiplatelet drugs; evidence is one case, one negative trial and lab tests. Preparation or compound: Ginger rhizome, doses mostly unspecified	^{49 43 60 117 102 65}
Reproductive system	Contraindication	Low certainty	EU monograph advises avoiding use in pregnancy as a precaution; trials for nausea found no clear harm but are small. The EU monograph advises avoiding medicinal use in pregnancy as a precaution; trials for nausea found no clear harm but are small. Preparation or compound: Ginger rhizome, medicinal doses	^{34 109 14 74}
Immune system	Drug or supplement interaction	Very low certainty	Changes to cyclosporine and tacrolimus levels in rats; one human transplant case saw no change. Preparation or compound: Ginger juice (animal studies)	^{18 33 13}
Nervous System	Biological association	Very low certainty	Studied for: Memory and thinking Studied for: Mood, anxiety, stress and fatigue	^{92 108 80 22 45 122 63 64 17 9 55 36 95 77}
Stress Mood	Biological association	Not enough evidence	Studied for: Mood, anxiety, stress and fatigue	^{22 45 80 122}
Sleep Recovery	Biological association	Not enough evidence	Studied for: Sleep and insomnia	⁵⁰
Immune System	Biological association	Low certainty	Studied for: Inflammation and oxidative stress markers Studied for: Immune and allergy-type uses	^{90 82 93 116}
Respiratory System	Biological association	Very low certainty	Studied for: Immune and allergy-type uses	^{116 93}
Digestive System	Biological association	Moderate certainty	Studied for: Nausea and vomiting in pregnancy Studied for: Chemotherapy-induced nausea and vomiting	^{109 42 66 21 23 19 56 58 123 121 55 36 95 77 115 41 10}
Reproductive System	Biological association	Moderate certainty	Studied for: Nausea and vomiting in pregnancy Studied for: Period pain (primary dysmenorrhea)	^{109 42 66 21 68 24}
Musculoskeletal System	Biological association	Low certainty	Studied for: Osteoarthritis pain Studied for: Muscle soreness after exercise	^{11 7 21 12}
Endocrine System	Biological association	Low certainty	Studied for: Blood sugar control (type 2 diabetes and overweight)	^{32 96 62 21}
Metabolism Weight	Biological association	Low certainty	Studied for: Blood sugar control (type 2 diabetes and overweight) Studied for: Cholesterol and triglycerides	^{32 96 62 21 87 94}
Cardiovascular System	Biological association	Very low certainty	Studied for: Cholesterol and triglycerides	^{87 94 32 21}

C. Body parts and organs

Connected to	Kind of connection	Evidence status	Context	Studies
Liver	Biological association	Very low certainty	No liver injury signal found; LiverTox says not linked to injury. A safety relationship, not a benefit. Preparation or compound: Ginger rhizome	⁵⁷
Blood vessels	Drug or supplement interaction	Not enough evidence	Platelet-aggregation effects in lab tests; no bleeding outcomes in people. Preparation or compound: Ginger rhizome	^{65 117}

D. Symptoms

Connected to	Kind of connection	Evidence status	Context	Studies
Nausea and vomiting in pregnancy	Demonstrated clinical effect	Moderate certainty	Several pooled analyses find less nausea than placebo and similar to vitamin B6; vomiting is not clearly reduced. Preparation or compound: Powder about 1 g a day for days to weeks	^{109 42 21}
Period pain (primary dysmenorrhea)	Demonstrated clinical effect	Moderate certainty	Less pain than placebo in pooled trials, with high variation between trials; similar to NSAIDs in two small trials. Preparation or compound: Powder 750 to 2,000 mg a day for the first 3 to 4 days	^{68 24 21}
Chemotherapy-induced nausea and vomiting	Potential benefit	Low certainty	One 2024 trial found less delayed nausea and vomiting as an add-on; reviews disagree. Preparation or compound: Standardised capsules, 84 mg a day of gingerols and shogaols	^{23 19 56}
Osteoarthritis pain	Potential benefit	Low certainty	A small pain benefit in one pooled analysis; another review called the evidence insufficient. Preparation or compound: Capsules; doses vary	^{11 7}
Migraine	Potential benefit	Low certainty	Helped as an add-on in an attack in one small trial; no benefit as a daily preventive in the largest trial. Preparation or compound: Extract 400 mg once as an add-on	^{63 64 9}
Memory and thinking	Preliminary mechanism	Very low certainty	One small trial in healthy middle-aged women; a pooled review calls the evidence very uncertain. Preparation or compound: Extract 400 or 800 mg once a day for 2 months	^{92 108 80}
Mood, anxiety and sleep	Preliminary mechanism	Not enough evidence	The only mood and anxiety trial in healthy adults and the only sleep trial (a foot bath) were both null. Preparation or compound: Root powder 1.2 g a day for 14 days; topical foot bath	^{22 50}

I. Biomarkers

Connected to	Kind of connection	Evidence status	Context	Studies
C-reactive protein (CRP)	Biological association	Low certainty	Measured in trials: lowered. A lab change is not the same as a health benefit.	^{90 93 82}
TNF-alpha	Biological association	Low certainty	Measured in trials: lowered. A lab change is not the same as a health benefit.	^{90 82}
Interleukin-6 (IL-6)	Biological association	Low certainty	Measured in trials: lowered. A lab change is not the same as a health benefit.	⁹⁰
Erythrocyte sedimentation rate (ESR)	Biological association	Very low certainty	Measured in trials: lowered. A lab change is not the same as a health benefit.	⁹³
White blood cell count	Biological association	Very low certainty	Measured in trials: no-change. A lab change is not the same as a health benefit.	⁹³
Antioxidant and oxidative stress markers (MDA, SOD, total antioxidant capacity)	Biological association	Low certainty	Measured in trials: mixed. A lab change is not the same as a health benefit.	^{90 82}
P300 and N100 brain-response measures (EEG)	Biological association	Very low certainty	Measured in trials: mixed. A lab change is not the same as a health benefit.	⁹²
Working memory (computerised tests)	Biological association	Very low certainty	Measured in trials: raised. A lab change is not the same as a health benefit.	^{92 108}
Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index (PSQI) and Insomnia Severity Index (ISI)	Biological association	Very low certainty	Measured in trials: no-change. A lab change is not the same as a health benefit.	⁵⁰
Depression, anxiety, stress and fatigue ratings	Biological association	Low certainty	Measured in trials: no-change. A lab change is not the same as a health benefit.	²²
Migraine pain severity and attack frequency	Biological association	Low certainty	Measured in trials: mixed. A lab change is not the same as a health benefit.	^{63 64 17 9}
Fasting blood sugar	Biological association	Low certainty	Measured in trials: mixed. A lab change is not the same as a health benefit.	^{32 96 62}
HbA1c	Biological association	Low certainty	Measured in trials: mixed. A lab change is not the same as a health benefit.	^{32 96}
Triglycerides	Biological association	Very low certainty	Measured in trials: lowered. A lab change is not the same as a health benefit.	^{87 94 32}
LDL cholesterol	Biological association	Very low certainty	Measured in trials: mixed. A lab change is not the same as a health benefit.	^{87 94}
HDL cholesterol	Biological association	Very low certainty	Measured in trials: no-change. A lab change is not the same as a health benefit.	^{87 94}
Gastric half-emptying time	Biological association	Low certainty	Measured in trials: lowered. A lab change is not the same as a health benefit.	^{115 41}

J. Genes, receptors and enzymes

Connected to	Kind of connection	Evidence status	Context	Studies
TRPV1 (capsaicin / vanilloid receptor 1)	Preliminary mechanism	In vitro	Activated by 6- and 8-gingerol in cultured sensory neurons; explains pungency	²⁵
HTR3A / HTR3B (serotonin 5-HT3 receptor subunits)	Preliminary mechanism	In vitro	Non-competitive block by ginger extract, 6-gingerol and 6-shogaol, including human receptors and human gut nerve tissue	^{112 2 1}
CHRM3 (muscarinic M3 receptor)	Preliminary mechanism	Animal	Slight reduction of maximal carbachol response in guinea-pig ileum	⁸³
HTR1A (serotonin 5-HT1A receptor)	Preliminary mechanism	In vitro	Partial agonism by 10-shogaol, 1-dehydro-6-gingerdione and whole lipophilic extract in cell assays	⁷⁶
HTR4 (serotonin 5-HT4 receptor)	Preliminary mechanism	Animal	No agonist effect or change in 5-HT response with gingerols/shogaol in rat tissue	⁸³
PTGS2 (COX-2) and PTGS1 (COX-1)	Preliminary mechanism	In vitro	Inhibited by gingerols, shogaols and paradols in cells and enzyme tests; 6-gingerol cut COX-2 expression in mouse skin	^{106 78 46 47}
ALOX5 (5-lipoxygenase)	Preliminary mechanism	In vitro	Inhibited by ginger diarylheptanoids in cell extract tests	⁴⁷
NFKB1 / RELA (NF-kappa-B) and MAPK14 (p38)	Preliminary mechanism	Animal	Signalling reduced by 6-gingerol (mouse skin) and 6-shogaol (microglial cells and mice)	^{46 37}
PRKAA1/2 (AMPK) and PPARGC1A (PGC-1 alpha)	Preliminary mechanism	Animal	AMPK phosphorylation by 6-paradol and 6-shogaol in fat cells; ginger extract and 6-gingerol raised AMPK/PGC-1 alpha and mitochondria in mice and liver cells	^{114 26}
CYP2C9, CYP3A4, CYP2C19, CYP2D6 (drug-metabolising enzymes)	Preliminary mechanism	Mixed findings	Inhibited by gingerols in a kit assay; computer modelling predicted high interaction risk for 2C9 and 3A4; EMA says human evidence of CYP or P-glycoprotein effects is insufficient	^{54 88 30}
AVP (arginine vasopressin)	Preliminary mechanism	Human	Plasma vasopressin rise during motion-sickness vection was reduced by ginger in a small crossover trial	⁵⁵
NOS2 (iNOS), TNF, IL1B	Preliminary mechanism	In vitro	Lowered by 6-shogaol in microglial cells	³⁷
Gut serotonin (5-HT) signalling	Preliminary mechanism	In vitro	Overall pathway through 5-HT3 receptors on enteric nerves; main proposed route for the anti-nausea effect	^{112 2}

K. Biological pathways

Connected to	Kind of connection	Evidence status	Context	Studies
Arachidonic acid cascade (prostaglandins, thromboxane, leukotrienes)	Preliminary mechanism	Mixed findings	The shared route behind the COX, 5-LOX and platelet findings; human platelet effects are not seen at 2 g of dried ginger	^{78 48 60 47}
Phase II conjugation: glucuronidation and sulfation (UGT/SULT enzymes, isoforms not identified in the abstracts)	Preliminary mechanism	Human	Main fate of ginger phenolics in human blood; beta-glucuronidase treatment raised measured mouse levels 10-700 fold	^{124 118 70}
Thiol (mercapturic acid) pathway and glutathione	Preliminary mechanism	Human	Main metabolic route of shogaols in mice and in human urine after ginger tea	^{15 16}
Gastric motility and stomach slow-wave rhythm	Preliminary mechanism	Human	Faster emptying in two small human trials, no effect in two others; less tachygastria during vection	^{115 41 84 101 55}

L. Active compounds

Connected to	Kind of connection	Evidence status	Context	Studies
6-Gingerol ([6]-gingerol)	Biological association	In vitro	Activates the capsaicin (TRPV1) receptor in neurons in culture; weakly blocks 5-HT3 receptors (low micromolar, non-competitive, including human receptors and human gut nerve tissue); weak effect on muscarinic M3 receptors in guinea-pig gut; blocked the p38 MAP kinase - NF-kappa-B - COX-2 pathway in mouse skin (animal); raised mitochondria numbers through AMPK-PGC1alpha in liver cells and mice (extract at 2 g/kg in mice; 6-gingerol in cells); inhibited human CYP2C9 and, moderately, CYP2C19/CYP3A4 in a test-tube kit assay. Not found as a free compound in human blood in the main dose study; it circulates as glucuronide and sulfate conjugates. Preparation or compound: Rhizome	^{25 112 2 83 46 26 54 124 118 97}
8-Gingerol	Biological association	In vitro	Activates TRPV1 in neurons in culture, with potency rising with side-chain length; among the more potent gingerols at 5-HT3 receptors in a cell and guinea-pig-ileum test; strongest CYP inhibitor of the three gingerols in a kit assay (IC50 6.8 micromol/L CYP2C9, 8.7 CYP3A4); inhibited arachidonic-acid-induced human platelet aggregation in whole blood (IC50 3-7 micromol/L, compared with aspirin 20 micromol/L in the same test). Preparation or compound: Rhizome	^{25 2 54 78 124}
10-Gingerol	Biological association	In vitro	Depressed the maximal 5-HT response in guinea-pig gut preparations (from 93% to 65% at 3 micromol/L); inhibits CYP2C9, CYP2C19 and CYP3A4 activity and CYP3A4 messenger RNA in a liver cancer cell line; unlike 6-gingerol, which raised CYP3A4 messenger RNA. One of the few ginger compounds detected as the free (unconjugated) form in human blood after 2 g of extract (peak 9.5 ng/mL) and in 19 people given red ginger (peak 160.49 ng/mL, half-life 336 minutes). Preparation or compound: Rhizome	^{83 54 118 53 124}
6-Shogaol ([6]-shogaol)	Biological association	In vitro	More potent than 6-gingerol at 5-HT3 receptors in cell and ileum tests; reduced microglial inflammation (nitric oxide, PGE2, IL-1 beta, TNF-alpha, COX-2, p38, NF-kappa-B) in mouse brain-cell cultures and in two mouse models; increased glucose use in fat and muscle cells through AMPK; metabolised mainly by the thiol (mercapturic acid) route, also seen in human urine after ginger tea; peak free blood level 13.6 ng/mL after 2 g extract (Yu) and 453.40 ng/mL in the red-ginger study (different method). Preparation or compound: Rhizome, mostly after drying, heating or storage	^{2 112 37 114 15 16 118 53 97}
8-Shogaol	Biological association	In vitro	One of the strongest COX-2 inhibitors among 17 ginger compounds in intact cells (IC50 range for the set 1-25 micromol/L); anti-platelet activity in whole blood with IC50 3-7 micromol/L; thiol-conjugated metabolites seen in human urine after ginger tea. Preparation or compound: Rhizome, mostly after drying or heating	^{106 78 15}
10-Shogaol	Biological association	In vitro	Partially activates the serotonin 5-HT1A receptor (20-60% of maximum) in cell tests; thiol metabolites in mice and human urine; lowest blood exposure of the gingerols/shogaols in rats (EMA, secondary). Preparation or compound: Rhizome, mostly after drying or heating	^{76 15}
Zingerone	Biological association	In vitro	The review of zingerone lists anti-inflammatory, antidiabetic, antidiarrhoeal, antispasmodic, anxiolytic and antioxidant activity, but the abstract gives no human data. EMA (secondary) reports that zingerone and 6-shogaol reached the brain in rats. Preparation or compound: Cooked or heated ginger	^{3 113}
6-Paradol ([6]-paradol)	Biological association	In vitro	Raised glucose use in fat and muscle cells through AMPK, and lowered blood glucose, cholesterol and body weight in mice fed a high-fat diet (p28106738). 8-Paradol was the strongest COX-1 inhibitor in a ginger-compound set (IC50 4 micromol/L) and strong against COX-2 in cells (p14693173, p11437391). The CID is for the 6- compound; the 8- compound was not looked up. Preparation or compound: Stored or processed ginger (a minor constituent)	^{114 78 106}
6-Gingerdione	Biological association	In vitro	1-Dehydro-6-gingerdione partially activated the serotonin 5-HT1A receptor in cell tests (a different compound from the CID shown, which is 6-gingerdione itself). Minor 5-HT3 blockers were found among related minor compounds such as 6-gingerdiol and 6-dehydrogingerdione. Preparation or compound: Rhizome	^{76 1}
6-Gingerdiol	Biological association	In vitro	Among the most potent 5-HT3-blocking compounds in a bioassay-guided fractionation of a hexane extract of ginger, alongside diacetyl-6-gingerdiol and 6-dehydrogingerdione (cell and rat-ileum tests). Preparation or compound: Rhizome	¹
alpha-Zingiberene	Biological association	In vitro	Defines the typical ginger smell. No human or mechanism data on the pure compound were read; one study found that the oil itself tested for 5-HT3 activity (p16041645), but the hexane extract (pungent compounds) was more active. Preparation or compound: Rhizome oil	¹
beta-Sesquiphellandrene	Biological association	In vitro	No separate activity data were read. Preparation or compound: Rhizome oil	³⁰
ar-Curcumene (zingiberol)	Biological association	In vitro	No separate activity data were read. A computer docking study placed ar-curcumene among 12 ginger components with predicted binding to CYP enzymes (p25733806). Preparation or compound: Rhizome oil	⁸⁸
beta-Bisabolene	Biological association	In vitro	No separate activity data were read; included in the same CYP docking study (p25733806). Preparation or compound: Rhizome oil	⁸⁸
Other constituents (starch, lipids, volatile oil minor parts, diarylheptanoids)	Biological association	In vitro	Most of these have no separate human data. Diarylheptanoids from ginger and galangal were more active against prostaglandin synthesis and 5-lipoxygenase than gingerols in one old test-tube study (p1606634). Preparation or compound: Rhizome	^{30 119 47}

Each connection is stored with the ingredient, the connected record, the kind of connection, the evidence status, the supporting studies, the preparation or compound involved, and a review date (last reviewed October 24, 2026).

Evidence at a glance: what changed in 17 lab markers

Tap a number to show only those markers. Counts are markers, not people.

Metabolic113 Inflammatory4 Organ function1 Other1123

The evidence

The research centre for Ginger. Every record here was checked against PubMed or the publisher's page; we never list a study we have not verified.

Evidence by outcome

Memory and thinking 3 studies · 60 people in trials Very low certainty Mood, anxiety, stress and fatigue 4 studies · 121 people in trials Not enough evidence Sleep and insomnia 1 study · 28 people in trials Not enough evidence Migraine headache 4 studies · 167 people in trials Low certainty Inflammation and oxidative stress markers 3 studies · 144 people in trials Low certainty Immune and allergy-type uses 2 studies · 224 people in trials Very low certainty Nausea and vomiting in pregnancy 4 studies Moderate certainty Chemotherapy-induced nausea and vomiting 4 studies · 103 people in trials Low certainty Nausea and vomiting after surgery 4 studies Low certainty Motion sickness and seasickness 4 studies · 2,018 people in trials Not enough evidence Osteoarthritis pain 3 studies Low certainty Period pain (primary dysmenorrhea) 3 studies Moderate certainty Blood sugar control (type 2 diabetes and overweight) 4 studies Low certainty Cholesterol and triglycerides 4 studies Very low certainty Indigestion and stomach emptying 3 studies · 115 people in trials Low certainty Muscle soreness after exercise 1 study · 74 people in trials Low certainty

Bars show how many studies we found for each outcome, not how well it works. People are added up across trials only (reviews are not added, to avoid double counting).

How we rate evidence

High certainty

Several well-run trials or reviews agree; further research is unlikely to change the picture much.

Moderate certainty

Good trials point the same way, but some doubt remains.

Low certainty

Small, short or inconsistent trials. The finding could change with better research.

Very low certainty

Very little or very weak human data. Treat as a possibility only.

Mixed findings

Trials or reviews disagree with each other.

Not enough evidence

Not enough human research to say either way.

Evidence against

Good research found no benefit, or found harm.

We take the reviewers' own risk-of-bias and GRADE statements where they exist, and otherwise judge from study size, design, consistency, directness and whether a product matches what is sold. Many publications do not make evidence high. Method note: We searched PubMed, NIH NCCIH, LactMed, the EU herbal monograph and other regulators' pages, opened each source and recorded the study design, people, product, dose and result as reported. Abstracts only for most studies; the EU monograph text was read in full. Some sources (for example the NIH LiverTox entry and the Commission E and WHO monographs) could not be read directly or were not read, and nothing is claimed about them beyond what is marked. Facts about the plant's origin and ancient history rest on encyclopedia summaries and are marked as not verified. No study is cited that we could not verify.

Study library: every study we checked 124

Design Research type Plant part Year from Search

Study	Design	People	Product, dose, length	Result
Abdel-Aziz 2005 5-HT3 receptor blocking activity of arylalkanes isolated from the rhizome of Zingiber officinale Planta Med · PMID 16041645 · DOI	In vitro in-vitro	N1E-115 cells and rat ileum	Ethanolic, hexane and aqueous ginger extracts, essential oil, and 9 isolated compounds rhizome acute	Hexane extract was the most active; fractionation gave [6]-, [8]-, [10]-gingerol, [6]-, [8]-shogaol, [4]-gingerol, [6]-gingerdiol, diacetyl-[6]-gingerdiol and [6]-dehydrogingerdione; potency order given in the abstract. see results Methods, limits and funding Outcomes: 5-HT3 receptor function Limitations: Cell and rat tissue. Read: abstract
Abdel-Aziz 2006 Mode of action of gingerols and shogaols on 5-HT3 receptors: binding studies, cation uptake by the receptor channel and contraction of isolated guinea-pig ileum Eur J Pharmacol · PMID 16364290 · DOI	In vitro in-vitro	N1E-115 cells, guinea-pig ileum, HEK-293 cells	[6]-, [8]-, [10]-gingerol and [6]-shogaol concentration-response acute · vs SR57227A agonist	All four compounds inhibited 5-HT3-mediated responses; potency order [6]-shogaol >= [8]-gingerol > [10]-gingerol >= [6]-gingerol; none displaced the radioligand, suggesting a separate (modulatory) site; weak anticholinergic and anti-neurokinin effects. see results Methods, limits and funding Outcomes: Guanidinium influx, ileum contraction, radioligand binding Limitations: Animal tissue and cell line. Read: abstract
Ahmad 2015 A Review on Pharmacological Properties of Zingerone (4-(4-Hydroxy-3-methoxyphenyl)-2-butanone) ScientificWorldJournal · PMID 26106644 · DOI	Narrative review in-vitro	Literature on zingerone	Zingerone	Says zingerone is absent in fresh ginger and forms when gingerol is heated; lists many activities. see results Methods, limits and funding Outcomes: Pharmacology Limitations: Review of mostly lab and animal work. Read: abstract
Altman 2001 Effects of a ginger extract on knee pain in patients with osteoarthritis. Arthritis Rheum · PMID 11710709 · DOI	Controlled trial	261 Knee osteoarthritis, moderate to severe pain	Highly concentrated extract of Zingiber officinale plus Alpinia galanga (EV.EXT 77) rhizome (both species) dose in mg not in abstract; twice daily 6 weeks · vs Placebo	63% vs 50% responders (P=0.048); knee pain on standing fell 24.5 vs 16.4 mm (P=0.005); WOMAC difference not significant (P=0.087). More mild stomach and gut side effects with ginger (59 vs 21 patients). Responders 63% vs 50% Methods, limits and funding Outcomes: Responders (pain on standing down 15 mm or more) Limitations: Product is a ginger-galangal mix; cannot be credited to ginger alone. Read: abstract
Amponsah 2022 Assessment of some quality parameters and chemometric-assisted FTIR spectral analysis of commercial powdered ginger products on the Ghanaian market. Heliyon · PMID 35846447 · DOI	Other	7 7 powdered ginger products on Ghanaian market	Powdered ginger rhizome	All products contained Z. officinale. Heavy metals, ash and microbes within specification except aerobic bacterial counts of some local samples. Three local products failed label requirements. Differences suggested processing differences and possible adulteration with other flours. Methods, limits and funding Outcomes: Microbial load, heavy metals, ash, FT-IR identity Limitations: One country, 7 powdered spice products, not capsules. Read: abstract
Anh 2020 Ginger on human health: a comprehensive systematic review of 109 randomized controlled trials Nutrients · PMID 31935866 · DOI	Systematic review	109	Ginger rhizome	109 RCTs extracted, including adverse effects; only 43 (39.4%) met the 'high quality of evidence' criterion; small populations and unstandardised evaluation noted. The abstract gives no pooled adverse-event rates. Methods, limits and funding Limitations: Abstract only read; adverse-event detail not seen. Read: abstract
Araya-Quintanilla 2020 Effectiveness of Ginger on Pain and Function in Knee Osteoarthritis: A PRISMA Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Pain Physician · PMID 32214292	Meta-analysis	Knee osteoarthritis; 7 trials, 4 pooled	Oral ginger capsules; topical ginger unspecified Not given in abstract Varied · vs Placebo; standard treatment	Capsules vs placebo: pain lower by 7.88 mm on a 100 mm scale; function change not significant. Authors conclude there is insufficient evidence for oral ginger. Pain MD -7.88 mm (P=0.00); topical vs standard treatment not significant (Pain 3.85 to 11.92 as printed in the abstract) Methods, limits and funding Outcomes: Pain, knee function Limitations: Authors describe the evidence as heterogeneous and of poor methodological quality. Reaches a more cautious conclusion than the 2015 meta-analysis. Read: abstract
Aregawi 2025 Evaluation of adverse effects and tolerability of dietary ginger supplementation in patients with functional dyspepsia Curr Ther Res Clin Exp · PMID 40474983 · DOI	Non randomised trial	47 adults with functional dyspepsia (78.7% female)	Ginger supplement rhizome 1080 mg/day in divided doses 8 weeks	47 of 50 patients completed 8 weeks of 1080 mg/day ginger. Mild, transient effects: bloating 14.9%, heartburn 12.8%, diarrhea 10.6%; none caused stopping; 87.2% rated tolerability good or excellent; no severe adverse events. Methods, limits and funding Limitations: Open-label, no placebo group, 50 people, patients had dyspepsia at the start so symptoms may be from the condition. Read: abstract
Atkins 2026 Ginger for the treatment and prevention of migraine headaches: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials. BMJ Evid Based Med · PMID 42601183 · DOI	Meta-analysis	594 Patients with migraine in 8 RCTs	Ginger (stand-alone or add-on) unspecified Various Acute and 3-month prevention · vs Placebo or active drugs (ketoprofen, sumatriptan, valproate, amitriptyline)	Ginger plus ketoprofen vs placebo plus ketoprofen: lower headache severity at 2 h (low certainty, 1 study of 60). Preventive add-on to a drug: lower pain severity at 3 months (low certainty, 2 studies, 183). Other comparisons very uncertain. Overall certainty low to very low; the authors say it is too uncertain whether ginger works. Acute MD -1.27 (1 study); prevention pooled MD -3.18 (Acute -1.46 to -1.08; prevention -3.94 to -2.42) Methods, limits and funding Outcomes: Headache severity, pain free or relief, attack frequency and duration, associated symptoms; GRADE certainty Limitations: Few, small trials; most results are ginger added to a drug or combined with other herbs. Abstract only; risk of bias, funding and full methods not verified. Registration: PROSPERO CRD420251025768 Read: abstract
Baek 2025 Efficacy and safety of steamed ginger extract for gastric health: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled multi-center clinical trial. Food Funct · PMID 40878144 · DOI	Controlled trial	80 Adults with mild to moderate functional dyspepsia, Korea	Steamed ginger extract (GGE03) rhizome (steamed extract) 480 mg/day 12 weeks · vs Placebo	GSRS total and sub-scores (pain, constipation, indigestion, reflux) improved more than placebo (p<0.001); several SF-36 domains improved. No clinically meaningful safety changes. GSRS p<0.001 for all listed scores Methods, limits and funding Outcomes: Gastrointestinal Symptom Rating Scale (GSRS), SF-36 Limitations: 80 people, one branded extract (authors are partly from companies, funding not stated in abstract); single trial. Read: abstract
Bartels 2015 Efficacy and safety of ginger in osteoarthritis patients: a meta-analysis of randomized placebo-controlled trials. Osteoarthritis Cartilage · PMID 25300574 · DOI	Meta-analysis	593 Osteoarthritis patients; 5 RCTs	Oral ginger unspecified Not given in abstract Varied · vs Placebo	Small pain and disability reductions; more people stopped treatment with ginger. Pain SMD -0.30 (P=0.005); disability SMD -0.22 (P=0.01); discontinuation RR 2.33 (Pain -0.50 to -0.09; disability -0.39 to -0.04; discontinuation 1.04-5.22) Methods, limits and funding Outcomes: Pain, disability, withdrawals due to adverse events Limitations: Five small trials, inadequate intention-to-treat in several; authors rate evidence moderate quality. Registration: PROSPERO CRD42011001777 Read: abstract
Black 2010 Ginger (Zingiber officinale) reduces muscle pain caused by eccentric exercise. J Pain · PMID 20418184 · DOI	Controlled trial	74 Healthy volunteers after arm exercise that induces soreness (34 raw-ginger study, 40 heated-ginger study)	Raw ginger; heat-treated ginger rhizome 2 g/day 11 days · vs Placebo	Pain 25% lower with raw ginger and 23% lower with heated ginger than placebo at 24 hours; smaller effects on other measures. Raw -0.78 SD (P=0.041); heated -0.57 SD (P=0.049) Methods, limits and funding Outcomes: Pain 24 hours after exercise, plasma PGE2, arm volume, range of motion, strength Limitations: Healthy young volunteers, induced soreness, not a disease. Small groups. Read: abstract
Boissiere 2023 Spice-drug interactions: a case report on the use of turmeric, curry and ginger in a renal transplant patient on tacrolimus Eur J Hosp Pharm · PMID 37586787 · DOI	Case report	1 renal transplant patient on tacrolimus	Ginger 10 g/day rhizome 10 g/day 4 days	One kidney-transplant patient (about 70) on tacrolimus took 10 g/day of ginger for 4 days under monitoring; tacrolimus blood levels did not change. Authors judge the impact of the spices negligible in vivo while saying more studies are needed. Methods, limits and funding Limitations: One patient, 4 days; cannot generalise. Read: abstract
Borrelli 2005 Effectiveness and safety of ginger in the treatment of pregnancy-induced nausea and vomiting Obstet Gynecol · PMID 15802416 · DOI	Systematic review	675 pregnant women	Oral ginger rhizome · vs Placebo, vitamin B6	Six double-blind RCTs (675 participants) and one prospective observational study (n=187). The observational study and RCT follow-ups showed no significant side effects or adverse effects on pregnancy outcomes; no spontaneous or case reports of adverse events during ginger treatment in pregnancy. Authors ask for larger observational studies on safety. Methods, limits and funding Limitations: Small samples; short exposure; older review. Read: abstract
Chen 2013 Characterization of thiol-conjugated metabolites of ginger components shogaols in mouse and human urine and modulation of the glutathione levels in cancer cells by [6]-shogaol Mol Nutr Food Res · PMID 23322393 · DOI	In vitro + human urine	Mice; human urine after ginger tea; HCT-116 cells	[6]-, [8]-, [10]-Shogaol	Mercapturic acid pathway is the major route for [10]-shogaol in mice and for shogaols in humans: six [6]-, two [8]- and two [10]-shogaol thiol metabolites in human urine after ginger tea; [6]-shogaol first lowered then raised glutathione in cells. see results Methods, limits and funding Outcomes: Thiol-conjugated metabolites (LC-MS/MS) Limitations: Number of tea drinkers not stated in the abstract. Read: abstract
Chen 2013 Cysteine-conjugated metabolite of ginger component [6]-shogaol serves as a carrier of [6]-shogaol in cancer cells and in mice Chem Res Toxicol · PMID 23638641 · DOI	In vitro + mouse animal	HCT-116 and H-1299 cancer cells; mice	[6]-Shogaol and its cysteine conjugate M2	M2 breaks down to 6-shogaol at pH 7.4, 37 C; both share metabolites; glutathione delays the effect. see results Methods, limits and funding Outcomes: Stability, cell metabolism, mouse urine and faeces Limitations: Cancer cells and mice. Read: abstract
Chen 2021 The efficacy of ginger for the treatment of migraine: A meta-analysis of randomized controlled studies. Am J Emerg Med · PMID 33293189 · DOI	Meta-analysis	Migraine patients in 3 RCTs	Ginger (various) unspecified Various Acute treatment, 2 h outcomes · vs Placebo	Pain free at 2 h RR 1.79; pain score at 2 h MD -1.27; no clear effect on treatment response (RR 2.04) or total adverse events (RR 0.80). Nausea and vomiting lower with ginger. Pain-free RR 1.79; pain score MD -1.27; response RR 2.04; adverse events RR 0.80 (Pain-free 1.04 to 3.09; pain score -1.46 to -1.07; response 0.35 to 11.94; adverse events 0.46 to 1.41) Methods, limits and funding Outcomes: Pain free at 2 h, pain score at 2 h, treatment response, adverse events Limitations: Only 3 small trials; the pain score finding comes from the single ketoprofen add-on trial also found in the 2026 review. The authors' conclusion that ginger is 'safe and effective' is stronger than the 2026 review allows. Abstract only; risk of bias, funding and full methods not verified. Read: abstract
Chiang 2006 Ginger significantly decreased the oral bioavailability of cyclosporine in rats Am J Chin Med · PMID 17080549 · DOI	Animal research animal	rats	Ginger juice rhizome 5 ml/kg orally single dose · vs Cyclosporine alone	Ginger juice (5 ml/kg) given with oral cyclosporine lowered Cmax by 70.9% and AUC by 63.1%; given 2 hours earlier, by 51.4% and 40.3%. Intravenous cyclosporine was unchanged, so the effect is on absorption. Authors say patients on cyclosporine should be discouraged from ginger products. Methods, limits and funding Limitations: Rats, ginger juice, single study; human relevance not shown. Read: abstract
Choi 2022 Effects of Ginger Intake on Chemotherapy-Induced Nausea and Vomiting: A Systematic Review of Randomized Clinical Trials. Nutrients · PMID 36501010 · DOI	Meta-analysis	Chemotherapy patients; 23 RCTs	Ginger supplements vs placebo or antiemetics rhizome (unspecified) Subgroup: up to 1 g/day Subgroup: more than 4 days · vs Placebo or antiemetic agents	Overall, no significant difference in acute or delayed nausea or in delayed vomiting. The subgroup taking no more than 1 g/day for over 4 days had less acute vomiting. Subgroup acute vomiting OR 0.30 (P=0.02) (95% CI 0.12-0.79) Methods, limits and funding Outcomes: Acute and delayed nausea and vomiting Limitations: Subgroup finding is from a split of trials and may be chance. Authors could not confirm an effect on nausea or delayed vomiting. Read: abstract
Chuah 2011 The effects of ginger on gallbladder motility in healthy male humans J Neurogastroenterol Motil · PMID 22148111 · DOI	Controlled trial	19 healthy men aged about 21	Ginger capsules rhizome 1,200 mg single dose single dose, crossover · vs Placebo (starch)	No difference between ginger and placebo in gallbladder volume or ejection fraction after a test meal, or in bloating, fullness, nausea or discomfort scores. Methods, limits and funding Limitations: 19 healthy young men, one 1,200 mg dose; no people with gallstones; says nothing about gallstone safety. Read: abstract
Crichton 2022 Orally consumed ginger and human health: an umbrella review. Am J Clin Nutr · PMID 35147170 · DOI	Systematic review	24 systematic reviews of oral ginger in humans	Oral ginger of any type unspecified 0.5-3 g/day in capsules, up to 3 months, was consistently reported effective Up to 3 months · vs Various	Strongest evidence: pregnancy nausea (large effect, GRADE high), osteoarthritis pain (small effect, GRADE high), glycemic control (GRADE very low to moderate). Dysmenorrhea, postoperative nausea, chemotherapy vomiting, blood pressure, weight: low to moderate. Lipids: very low. Effect sizes graded: large (pregnancy nausea); small (osteoarthritis pain); small (lipids) Methods, limits and funding Outcomes: Any health outcome; AMSTAR-2 and GRADE graded Limitations: Substantial heterogeneity and poor reporting of interventions across the source reviews. The authors' GRADE grades are higher than the individual reviews' own cautious wording in places (for example a 2020 osteoarthritis review called the evidence insufficient). Read: abstract
Crichton 2023 Effect of Ginger Root Powder on Gastrointestinal Bacteria Composition, Gastrointestinal Symptoms, Mental Health, Fatigue, and Quality of Life: A Double-Blind Placebo-Controlled Trial. J Nutr · PMID 37690779 · DOI	Controlled trial	51 Healthy adults aged 18 to 30 (71% female); ginger n=29, placebo n=22	Standardized ginger root powder root 1.2 g/day (4 capsules, 84 mg/day gingerols and shogaols) 14 days after a 1-week run-in · vs Microcrystalline cellulose placebo	No differences between ginger and placebo for mood (depression, anxiety, stress), fatigue or quality of life. Indigestion symptoms improved with ginger (P = 0.015). No moderate or severe adverse events. Mood/fatigue: no between-group difference (no numbers in the abstract) Methods, limits and funding Outcomes: Primary: gut bacteria. Secondary: gut symptoms, bowel function, depression, anxiety, stress, fatigue, quality of life, adverse events Limitations: Short (14 days), small, healthy young adults with little room to improve. Mood was a secondary outcome. Abstract only; risk of bias, funding and full methods not verified. Registration: ACTRN12620000302954p Read: abstract
Crichton 2024 Effect of a Standardized Ginger Root Powder Regimen on Chemotherapy-Induced Nausea and Vomiting: A Multicenter, Double-Blind, Placebo-Controlled Randomized Trial. J Acad Nutr Diet · PMID 37699474 · DOI	Controlled trial	103 Chemotherapy-naive adults starting moderately to highly emetogenic chemotherapy, two Australian hospitals	Standardized ginger root powder capsules (4 capsules, 84 mg/day gingerols and shogaols) rhizome (root) 84 mg/day active gingerols/shogaols 5 days from chemotherapy day, cycles 1 to 3 · vs Placebo, on top of usual antiemetics	Better nausea-related quality of life, delayed nausea severity and fatigue with ginger. Delayed nausea in cycle 3: 49% vs 79%; delayed vomiting 2% vs 23%. No effect on anticipatory or acute nausea and vomiting. No serious adverse events. Nausea QoL change P=0.003, partial eta squared 0.09; overall CINV QoL P<0.001 Methods, limits and funding Outcomes: Nausea-related quality of life (primary); delayed nausea and vomiting; fatigue; nutrition Limitations: Two centres, 103 people; many outcomes tested (the authors used a stricter P=0.003 cut-off). Funding not recorded here. Read: abstract
Daily 2015 Efficacy of Ginger for Alleviating the Symptoms of Primary Dysmenorrhea: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis of Randomized Clinical Trials. Pain Med · PMID 26177393 · DOI	Meta-analysis	Women with primary dysmenorrhea; 7 RCTs, 4 pooled	Ginger powder rhizome 750-2000 mg/day First 3-4 days of the menstrual cycle · vs Placebo	Significantly less pain than placebo. Pain VAS -1.85 (P=0.0003) (95% CI -2.87 to -0.84) Methods, limits and funding Outcomes: Pain on visual analogue scale Limitations: Only four trials pooled; authors call the evidence suggestive. Six of seven RCTs had low to moderate risk of bias. Read: abstract
Dedov 2002 Gingerols: a novel class of vanilloid receptor (VR1) agonists Br J Pharmacol · PMID 12411409 · DOI	In vitro in-vitro	Cultured dorsal root ganglion (sensory) neurons; species not stated in abstract	Synthetic [6]- and [8]-gingerol not given in abstract acute · vs capsaicin; capsazepine to block	[6]- and [8]-gingerol evoked capsaicin-like responses blocked by capsazepine; potency rose with side-chain length and hydrophobicity. see results Methods, limits and funding Outcomes: Calcium influx and ion currents Limitations: Cells in culture; no human or in-vivo data. Read: abstract
Deng 2019 Promotion of Mitochondrial Biogenesis via Activation of AMPK-PGC1ɑ Signaling Pathway by Ginger (Zingiber officinale Roscoe) Extract, and Its Major Active Component 6-Gingerol J Food Sci · PMID 31369153 · DOI	In vitro + mouse animal	Mice; HepG2 liver cells	Ginger extract, 6-gingerol, 6-shogaol rhizome extract 2 g/kg in mice; 2.5 and 5 mg/mL in cells · vs control	Extract raised oxygen use, heat, mitochondrial DNA and AMPK/PGC-1 alpha proteins; 6-gingerol seemed the main active; both 6-gingerol at 200 micromol/L and 6-shogaol at 10-200 micromol/L reduced cell viability. see results Methods, limits and funding Outcomes: Oxygen use, mitochondria, AMPK/PGC-1 alpha Limitations: Very high doses and concentrations. Read: abstract
Dilokthornsakul 2022 Efficacy and safety of ginger regarding human milk volume and related clinical outcomes: a systematic review of randomized controlled trials Complement Med Res · PMID 33789272 · DOI	Systematic review	breastfeeding mothers	Ginger (alone or combined) rhizome	Five RCTs (two ginger alone, three in combinations); ginger raised milk volume after vaginal births but not after caesarean; no adverse effect directly related to ginger was reported. Methods, limits and funding Limitations: Five small trials; infant outcomes not described in the abstract. Read: abstract
Ding 2013 The effectiveness and safety of ginger for pregnancy-induced nausea and vomiting: a systematic review Women Birth · PMID 22951628 · DOI	Systematic review	pregnant women	Oral ginger rhizome · vs Placebo	Four RCTs; adverse events generally mild and infrequent. Authors note uncertainty about the maximum safe dose, duration, consequences of over-dosage and herb-drug interactions. Methods, limits and funding Limitations: Four trials only; abstract only. Read: abstract
Drugs and Lactation Database (LactMed) 2026 Ginger (LactMed) LactMed (record dated 2026 Oct 15) · PMID 30000845	Authoritative guidance		Ginger rhizome	Abstract read via PubMed: very limited data on ginger in nursing mothers or infants; GRAS as a food flavouring including during lactation; as a medicinal generally well tolerated, with occasional bad taste, heartburn, abdominal discomfort, weight gain, headache, dry mouth and nausea; states 'ginger can increase bleeding risk when taken with warfarin'. A systematic review found weak evidence that ginger may raise milk supply after vaginal birth but not after caesarean. Methods, limits and funding Limitations: Summary text only; it cites no numbers for the warfarin statement here. Read: summary-only
EMA Committee on Herbal Medicinal Products (HMPC) 2025 Assessment report on Zingiber officinale Roscoe, rhizoma. Final - Revision 1. EMA/HMPC/765220/2022 European Medicines Agency · Source	Authoritative guidance (regulatory assessment report)	n/a	n/a	Constituents, historical use, non-clinical and human pharmacokinetics, interaction review, well-established-use motion-sickness indication retained, traditional-use indications. Methods, limits and funding Outcomes: n/a Limitations: Selected sections read from the PDF (identity, history, pharmacokinetics, overall conclusions); the rat and mouse papers it cites were not read separately, so those numbers are second-hand. Read: full-text
EMA Committee on Herbal Medicinal Products (HMPC) 2025 European Union herbal monograph on Zingiber officinale Roscoe, rhizoma. Final, Revision 1 (EMA/HMPC/885789/2022) · Source	Authoritative guidance		Ginger rhizome rhizome	Adopted 7 May 2025. Well-established use: prevention of nausea and vomiting in motion sickness, 1-2 g one hour before travel. Traditional uses: motion sickness, mild spasmodic gut complaints with bloating and flatulence, temporary loss of appetite, minor joint pain, symptoms of common cold; powder or tinctures 1:10 and 1:2 in 90% ethanol. Adults and elderly for most uses; not recommended under 18 (motion sickness 6 to 12 years allowed at a lower dose). Pregnancy: preferable to avoid; lactation not recommended. No interactions known. Common side effects: stomach upset, belching, dyspepsia, heartburn, nausea. Methods, limits and funding Limitations: Read in full by text extraction from the downloaded PDF. Read: full-text
Ebrahimzadeh 2022 The effect of ginger supplementation on metabolic profiles in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus: A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Complement Ther Med · PMID 35031435 · DOI	Meta-analysis	Adults with type 2 diabetes; 10 articles	Ginger supplements unspecified Not given in abstract Varied · vs Control	Lower fasting glucose and HbA1c; lower blood pressure; no change in triglycerides, total, LDL or HDL cholesterol. FBS WMD -18.81; HbA1c WMD -0.57; SBP -4.20; DBP -1.61 (FBS -28.70 to -8.92 (I2 77.4%); HbA1c -0.93 to -0.20 (I2 88.6%)) Methods, limits and funding Outcomes: Fasting glucose, HbA1c, blood pressure, lipids Limitations: Very high heterogeneity (I2 77-97%). Pooling reflects small trials of mixed quality. Read: abstract
Egashira 2012 Food-drug interaction of tacrolimus with pomelo, ginger, and turmeric juice in rats Drug Metab Pharmacokinet · PMID 22123127 · DOI	Animal research animal	rats	Ginger juice rhizome · vs Water	Tacrolimus AUC was significantly larger in rats pre-treated with ginger juice than with water (also with turmeric, grapefruit, pomelo). Methods, limits and funding Limitations: Rats; the abstract gives no ginger-specific numbers; human relevance not shown. Read: abstract
European Medicines Agency 2025 EU herbal monograph on Zingiber officinale Roscoe, rhizoma, Final Revision 1 (EMA/HMPC/885789/2022) EMA monograph, adopted 7 May 2025 · Source	Authoritative guidance		Ginger rhizome powder, tinctures rhizome	Monograph PDF text read. Well-established use: powdered rhizome 1-2 g one hour before travel for nausea and vomiting of motion sickness (adults); traditional uses also listed. Contraindication: hypersensitivity only. Not recommended under 18 years (insufficient data). Interactions: none known. Pregnancy: a moderate amount of data (300 to 1000 pregnancy outcomes) indicates no malformative or feto/neonatal toxicity; as a precaution it is preferable to avoid use in pregnancy; lactation not recommended (safety not established). Undesirable effects: stomach upset, eructation, dyspepsia, heartburn and nausea, common (1/100 to under 1/10); hypersensitivity, frequency not known. No case of overdose reported. Preclinical: repeat-dose studies up to 12 months with ethanolic extracts indicate toxic doses are higher than human doses; adequate reproductive, genotoxicity and carcinogenicity tests not performed; pregnant rodents given ginger powder or aqueous extracts showed increased embryo resorption at doses from slightly above to a few times higher than human doses; male rats had higher testicular weight and testosterone after 8 days of aqueous extract at about twice the human dose. Methods, limits and funding Limitations: Regulatory summary, not a new study. The monograph text does not mention bleeding, anticoagulants or gallstones. The assessment report was not read. Read: full-text
GBIF Secretariat 2026 GBIF Backbone Taxonomy: Zingiber officinale Roscoe (usageKey 2757280) GBIF API · Source	Database record	n/a	n/a	Accepted species in Zingiberaceae, order Zingiberales; 26 synonyms; vernacular names list. Methods, limits and funding Outcomes: n/a Limitations: Name database; read via API on 2026-10-24. Read: full-text
Grontved 1988 Ginger root against seasickness. A controlled trial on the open sea. Acta Otolaryngol · PMID 3277342 · DOI	Controlled trial	80 Naval cadets unaccustomed to heavy seas	Powdered ginger rhizome rhizome 1 g, single dose 4 hours of observation · vs Placebo	Less vomiting and cold sweating than placebo (p<0.05). Nausea and vertigo were lower but not significantly. Protection Index 72% for vomiting; 38% across all symptoms Methods, limits and funding Outcomes: Vomiting, cold sweating, nausea, vertigo reported hourly Limitations: Small and old (1988). Protection Index is the authors' own measure. Read: abstract
Ha 2012 6-Shogaol, a ginger product, modulates neuroinflammation: a new approach to neuroprotection Neuropharmacology · PMID 22465818 · DOI	In vitro + animal animal	BV-2 and primary microglia; mouse inflammation and ischaemia models	6-Shogaol not given in abstract acute · vs 6-gingerol, wogonin, L-NMMA for comparison	6-Shogaol inhibited all of these in cells and reduced microglial activation and ischaemic damage in mice. see results Methods, limits and funding Outcomes: Nitric oxide, iNOS, PGE2, IL-1 beta, TNF-alpha, COX-2, p38, NF-kappa-B Limitations: Cell and mouse work; doses not extrapolated to people. Read: abstract
Han 2022 A sense of ginger fraud: prevalence and deconstruction of the China-European union supply chain. NPJ Sci Food · PMID 36329117 · DOI	Systematic review	Ginger supply chain, China to EU	Ginger products rhizome	Adulteration was the main fraud type; ground and finely processed ginger were the most vulnerable products; the chain was rated medium vulnerable to fraud. Methods, limits and funding Outcomes: Review of fraud databases, literature and stakeholder interviews Limitations: Reviews vulnerability; does not test supplements on shelves. Read: abstract
Hazra 2024 Safety issues of herb-warfarin interactions Curr Drug Metab · PMID 38465436 · DOI	Systematic review		Herbs with warfarin rhizome	Narrative review whose abstract lists Zingiber officinale among herbs or foods linked to serious outcomes such as post-operative bleeding, thrombosis and haemorrhage in warfarin users. No ginger-specific numbers in the abstract. Methods, limits and funding Limitations: Targeted (non-systematic) literature method; abstract only; cannot tell which events were tied to ginger. Read: abstract
Heidari-Beni 2020 Herbal formulation 'turmeric extract, black pepper, and ginger' versus Naproxen for chronic knee osteoarthritis: A randomized, double-blind, controlled clinical trial. Phytother Res · PMID 32180294 · DOI	Controlled trial	60 Knee osteoarthritis grade 2-3	Turmeric extract + black pepper + ginger rhizome twice daily 4 weeks · vs Naproxen	PGE2 fell in both groups with no difference between groups. No difference vs naproxen Methods, limits and funding Outcomes: Prostaglandin E2 Limitations: Three-herb mix; PGE2 is a marker, not pain. Read: abstract
Hu 2011 Effect of ginger on gastric motility and symptoms of functional dyspepsia. World J Gastroenterol · PMID 21218090 · DOI	Controlled trial	11 Patients with functional dyspepsia, crossover, Taiwan	Ginger capsules unspecified 1.2 g single dose Single test meal · vs Placebo (crossover)	Stomach emptied faster after ginger; symptoms and gut hormones did not differ. Half-emptying 12.3 min (8.5-17.0) vs 16.1 min (8.3-22.6), P<=0.05 (Ranges given as min-max, not confidence intervals) Methods, limits and funding Outcomes: Gastric half-emptying time (ultrasound), antral contractions, symptoms, GLP-1, motilin, ghrelin Limitations: Eleven patients, single dose, no symptom benefit. Read: abstract
Hu 2022 Effect of ginger in the treatment of nausea and vomiting compared with vitamin B6 and placebo during pregnancy: a meta-analysis. J Matern Fetal Neonatal Med · PMID 31937153 · DOI	Meta-analysis	1174 Pregnant women, 13 RCTs	oral ginger (preparations varied between trials) rhizome (unspecified) Not given in abstract Varied · vs Placebo; vitamin B6	Ginger beat placebo for general symptoms and nausea but not for vomiting; versus vitamin B6 there was no significant difference on any outcome. vs placebo: general symptoms OR 7.475; nausea SMD 0.821; vomiting SMD 0.549 (not significant). vs B6: all not significant (General symptoms OR 4.133-13.520; nausea SMD 0.585-1.056; vomiting SMD -0.268 to 1.365; vs B6 nausea SMD -0.102 to 0.500) Methods, limits and funding Outcomes: General NVP symptoms, nausea severity, vomiting Limitations: High heterogeneity for vomiting (I2 91.4%) and for the B6 comparisons; authors ask for larger, better designed trials. Searched two databases only. Read: abstract
Jiang 2005 Effect of ginkgo and ginger on the pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of warfarin in healthy subjects Br J Clin Pharmacol · PMID 15801937 · DOI	Controlled trial	12 healthy men	Ginger herbal product, 'recommended doses' rhizome 7 days before and 7 days after a single 25 mg warfarin dose · vs Warfarin alone	INR and platelet aggregation were not affected by ginger alone. Ratio of S-warfarin clearance with ginger vs warfarin alone 1.05 (90% CI 0.97-1.13); R-warfarin 1.02 (0.95-1.10); INR AUC ratio 1.01 (0.93-1.15). No effect on CYP2C9 marker. Authors conclude ginger at recommended doses did not significantly affect clotting status or warfarin pharmacokinetics or pharmacodynamics in healthy subjects. INR AUC ratio 1.01 (0.93-1.15) Methods, limits and funding Outcomes: Warfarin PK/PD, INR, platelet aggregation Limitations: 12 healthy men, single warfarin dose, 7 days of ginger before; open-label crossover. Not patients on long-term warfarin; short exposure; one commercial product. Read: abstract
Kashefi 2015 Effect of ginger (Zingiber officinale) on heavy menstrual bleeding: a placebo-controlled, randomized clinical trial Phytother Res · PMID 25298352 · DOI	Controlled trial	92 high-school girls with heavy menstrual bleeding	Ginger capsules rhizome 3 menstrual cycles · vs Placebo	92 young women with heavy periods; menstrual blood loss fell more with ginger than placebo over three cycles (p<0.001); few adverse effects. Shown here because it did not find more bleeding; a trial of period bleeding does not settle surgical or anticoagulant bleeding risk. Methods, limits and funding Limitations: Small, single-centre, young women only, subjective chart; dose not given in the abstract. Read: abstract
Khayat 2014 Effect of treatment with ginger on the severity of premenstrual syndrome symptoms. ISRN Obstet Gynecol · PMID 24944825 · DOI	Controlled trial	70 Women with premenstrual syndrome (35 ginger, 35 control)	Ginger capsules unspecified 2 capsules daily (capsule strength not given in abstract) from 7 days before to 3 days after menstruation 3 menstrual cycles · vs Control group (type of control not specified in abstract)	Symptom scores were lower in the ginger group than the control group after 1, 2 and 3 months (P < 0.0001). The authors say ginger may reduce the severity of mood, physical and behavioural PMS symptoms. P < 0.0001 for group difference; magnitude not given in abstract (null) Methods, limits and funding Outcomes: Severity of PMS symptoms (mood, physical and behavioural) on a daily record scale Limitations: Mood symptoms are only part of a combined score; the abstract does not separate them. Older small trial from one region; control type unclear. Abstract only; risk of bias, funding and full methods not verified. Read: abstract
Kim 2005 [6]-Gingerol inhibits COX-2 expression by blocking the activation of p38 MAP kinase and NF-kappaB in phorbol ester-stimulated mouse skin Oncogene · PMID 15735738 · DOI	Animal (mouse skin) animal	Mouse skin treated with TPA tumour promoter	[6]-Gingerol applied to the skin not given in abstract acute · vs vehicle	[6]-Gingerol reduced COX-2 expression, blocked IkappaBalpha degradation, p65 translocation and p38 activation. see results Methods, limits and funding Outcomes: COX-2, NF-kappa-B, p38 Limitations: Topical tumour-promoter model; not a model of eating ginger. Read: abstract
Kiuchi 1992 Inhibition of prostaglandin and leukotriene biosynthesis by gingerols and diarylheptanoids Chem Pharm Bull (Tokyo) · PMID 1606634 · DOI	In vitro in-vitro	Enzyme preparations; RBL-1 cells	Gingerols and diarylheptanoids from ginger and Alpinia officinarum rhizome	Gingerols and diarylheptanoids inhibited prostaglandin synthesis; a catechol diarylheptanoid was most active against 5-lipoxygenase; yakuchinone A was most active against prostaglandin synthetase. see results Methods, limits and funding Outcomes: Prostaglandin synthetase and 5-lipoxygenase inhibition Limitations: 1992 test-tube study; includes a galangal species. Read: abstract
Koo 2001 Gingerols and related analogues inhibit arachidonic acid-induced human platelet serotonin release and aggregation Thromb Res · PMID 11553371 · DOI	In vitro in-vitro	Human platelets; RBL-2H3 cells	Synthetic gingerols and analogues (G1-G7) IC50 45.3-82.6 micromol/L (serotonin release); aspirin 23.4 +/- 3.6 micromol/L acute · vs aspirin	All analogues blocked the release reaction and aggregation; G3 and G4 maximal aggregation inhibition about 10.5 micromol/L vs aspirin 6.0. see results Methods, limits and funding Outcomes: Platelet serotonin release and aggregation; COX activity Limitations: Synthetic analogues, not the natural compounds only. Read: abstract
Krüth 2004 Ginger-associated overanticoagulation by phenprocoumon Ann Pharmacother · PMID 14742762 · DOI	Case report	1 76-year-old woman on phenprocoumon	Ginger products (unspecified) rhizome Several weeks	A 76-year-old woman on long-term phenprocoumon (a warfarin-type drug) with stable INR began ginger products; weeks later INR rose up to 10 with nosebleed. INR normalised after ginger was stopped and vitamin K1 given. Authors rate causality 'probable'. Methods, limits and funding Outcomes: INR, bleeding Limitations: One case; ginger product, dose and other factors not stated in the abstract. Read: abstract
Kuderer 2022 Do ginger footbaths improve symptoms of insomnia more than footbaths with warm water only? - A randomized controlled study. Complement Ther Med · PMID 35439548 · DOI	Controlled trial	28 Adults with self-reported insomnia symptoms (mean age 50.9; 64.3% women)	Ginger footbath (topical, not swallowed) root 80 g powdered ginger rhizome in 12 L of 38-42 C water, up to 20 min nightly 2 weeks · vs Warm-water footbath	Ginger added nothing over warm water on PSQI (between-group difference 0.0) or ISI (-0.2). Both groups improved over time. PSQI mean between-group difference 0.0; ISI -0.2 (PSQI 95% CI -3.0 to 2.9; ISI -3.9 to 3.4) Methods, limits and funding Outcomes: Primary: sleep quality (PSQI global score). Secondary: Insomnia Severity Index, warmth perception, skin temperature gradient Limitations: Very small trial; topical footbath, not an oral supplement, so it says nothing about swallowed ginger. Abstract only; risk of bias, funding and full methods not verified. Read: abstract
Laekeman 2021 Ginger (Zingiber officinale) root extract during pregnancy: a clinical feasibility study Planta Med · PMID 33706399 · DOI	Cohort study	51 pregnant women	Concentrated ethanolic ginger root extract (EXT.GR10) rhizome up to 100 mg/day (2 x 50 mg tablets) during pregnancy, as needed	Observational study of 51 pregnant women offered a 10-fold concentrated ethanolic ginger extract (up to 2 x 50 mg tablets/day); 44 took tablets. Stillbirth, prematurity, hypertension and gestational diabetes occurred; no serious complications at birth; 4 cases of hip dysplasia and 2 minor malformations in newborns; authors found no relation between events and number of tablets. A follow-up trial was planned. Methods, limits and funding Limitations: Very small, uncontrolled, no comparison group; cannot establish safety or harm. Read: abstract
Lee 2017 Effectiveness of Ginger Essential Oil on Postoperative Nausea and Vomiting in Abdominal Surgery Patients. J Altern Complement Med · PMID 27841938 · DOI	Other	60 Abdominal surgery patients	Ginger essential oil, inhaled oil dose not in abstract 6 to 24 hours · vs Saline inhalation	Scores lower with ginger oil, mainly in the first 6 hours. Lower scores Methods, limits and funding Outcomes: Index of Nausea, Vomiting and Retching Limitations: Quasi-experimental, not randomized. Read: abstract
Levita 2018 Pharmacokinetics of 10-gingerol and 6-shogaol in the plasma of healthy subjects treated with red ginger (Zingiber officinale var. Rubrum) suspension Biomed Rep · PMID 30546874 · DOI	Pharmacokinetic study in humans	19 Healthy subjects (Indonesia)	Red ginger (var. rubrum) suspension rhizome 2 g in 15 mL, single dose blood sampling to 180 min	10-Gingerol Cmax 160.49 ng/mL at 38 min, half-life 336 min; 6-shogaol 453.40 ng/mL at 30 min, half-life 149 min. see results Methods, limits and funding Outcomes: Plasma 10-gingerol and 6-shogaol by LC-MS Limitations: Sampling stopped at 180 min, so half-lives longer than the sampling window are estimates; method differs from the 2011 study. Read: abstract
Li 2013 Pungent ginger components modulates human cytochrome P450 enzymes in vitro Acta Pharmacol Sin · PMID 23770984 · DOI	In vitro in-vitro	Human CYP enzyme kits; HepG2 cells	6-, 8-, 10-Gingerol IC50 for 8-gingerol 6.8, 12.5, 8.7, 42.7 micromol/L (CYP2C9, 2C19, 3A4, 2D6) acute	All three inhibit CYP2C9 strongly, 2C19/3A4 moderately, 2D6 weakly; 8- and 10-gingerol lowered, 6-gingerol raised CYP3A4 messenger RNA. see results Methods, limits and funding Outcomes: CYP activity; CYP3A4 messenger RNA Limitations: Test tube; micromolar concentrations. Read: abstract
Lien 2003 Effects of ginger on motion sickness and gastric slow-wave dysrhythmias induced by circular vection. Am J Physiol Gastrointest Liver Physiol · PMID 12576305 · DOI	Controlled trial	13 Volunteers with a history of motion sickness, spinning-drum (circular vection) test, Taiwan	Ginger unspecified 1000 mg and 2000 mg single pre-treatment Single session · vs Placebo (crossover)	Ginger reduced nausea, abnormal fast stomach rhythm (tachygastria) and vasopressin; nausea started later and recovery was faster. Not given in abstract Methods, limits and funding Outcomes: Nausea score 0-3, stomach rhythm (electrogastrogram), plasma vasopressin Limitations: Only 13 volunteers; artificial spinning test, not real travel. Read: abstract
Lin 2025 Efficacy and Safety of Ginger on Chemotherapy-Induced Nausea and Vomiting: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials. Cancer Nurs · PMID 38625733 · DOI	Meta-analysis	Chemotherapy patients; 35 RCTs (22 ginger capsules, 13 ginger-partitioned moxibustion)	Ginger capsules, plus ginger-partitioned moxibustion (ginger slice heated on the skin) rhizome (unspecified) Not given in abstract Varied · vs Standard antiemetics alone or placebo	Ginger capsules added to standard antiemetics reduced grade 3 acute nausea and high-grade overall vomiting; moxibustion trials reduced mild and severe vomiting. Grade 3 acute nausea RR 0.19 (P<0.001); high-grade overall vomiting RR 0.47 (P=0.01) Methods, limits and funding Outcomes: Incidence and severity of CINV Limitations: Moxibustion is not an oral spice use. Total patient number and risk-of-bias detail are not in the abstract. Pooled capsule trials differ in dose and chemotherapy type. Registration: PROSPERO CRD4202232104 Read: abstract
LiverTox 2024 Ginger (LiverTox) LiverTox: Clinical and Research Information on Drug-Induced Liver Injury (entry dated 2024 Feb 10) · PMID 38381909	Authoritative guidance		Ginger rhizome	Opening statement read via PubMed: ginger is generally recognized as safe (GRAS) and has not been linked to serum aminotransferase elevations nor to instances of clinically apparent liver injury. Methods, limits and funding Limitations: Only the abstract-level opening statement was read; the full web page blocks automated access, so any likelihood score or reference list was not read. Read: summary-only
Lu 2022 The preventive and relieving effects of ginger on postoperative nausea and vomiting: A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Int J Nurs Stud · PMID 34700257 · DOI	Meta-analysis	1506 Surgical patients; 14 RCTs	oral ginger (preparations varied between trials) unspecified Not given in abstract Varied · vs Placebo	Nausea scores were lower with ginger at 2, 6 and 12 hours after surgery. Vomiting, combined nausea and vomiting, and antiemetic use did not differ significantly (apart from in the recovery room). Nausea SMD -1.10 at 2 h; -1.54 at 6 h; -2.04 at 12 h (2 h -1.95 to -0.25; 6 h -3.05 to -0.03; 12 h -3.67 to -0.41) Methods, limits and funding Outcomes: Nausea score, vomiting episodes, antiemetic use Limitations: Very wide intervals; authors ask for higher-quality trials. Registration: PROSPERO CRD42020220916 Read: abstract
Lua 2015 Effects of inhaled ginger aromatherapy on chemotherapy-induced nausea and vomiting and health-related quality of life in women with breast cancer. Complement Ther Med · PMID 26051575 · DOI	Controlled trial	60 Women with breast cancer on chemotherapy	Ginger essential oil, inhaled oil necklace inhalation 5 days · vs Fragrance-matched placebo (crossover)	Nausea lower in acute phase (P=0.040) but not overall; no effect on vomiting; some quality-of-life domains improved. Authors: not convincing as an anti-nausea therapy. Acute nausea only Methods, limits and funding Outcomes: Nausea, vomiting, quality of life Limitations: Single-blind. Read: abstract
Lumb 1994 Effect of dried ginger on human platelet function Thromb Haemost · PMID 8165628	Controlled trial	8 healthy men	Dried ginger capsules rhizome 2 g single dose Single dose, tested at 3 h and 24 h · vs Placebo	No differences between 2 g dried ginger and placebo in bleeding time, platelet count, thromboelastography or whole-blood platelet aggregometry at 3 h and 24 h. Methods, limits and funding Outcomes: Platelet function Limitations: Eight healthy men; single dose; short. Cannot speak to repeated or higher doses or to fresh ginger. Read: abstract
Maghbooli 2014 Comparison between the efficacy of ginger and sumatriptan in the ablative treatment of the common migraine. Phytother Res · PMID 23657930 · DOI	Controlled trial	100 Acute migraine without aura	Ginger powder rhizome dose not in abstract five attacks · vs Sumatriptan	Severity fell with both; efficacy similar; fewer side effects with ginger. Similar to sumatriptan Methods, limits and funding Outcomes: Headache severity at 2 h Limitations: No placebo; dose not in abstract. Read: abstract
Maharlouei 2019 The effects of ginger intake on weight loss and metabolic profiles among overweight and obese subjects: A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr · PMID 29393665 · DOI	Meta-analysis	473 Overweight or obese adults; 14 RCTs	Ginger supplements unspecified Not given in abstract Varied · vs Control	Lower body weight, fasting glucose and HOMA-IR; higher HDL; no effect on insulin, BMI, triglycerides, total or LDL cholesterol. Body weight SMD -0.66; fasting glucose SMD -0.68; HOMA-IR SMD -1.67 (Weight -1.31 to -0.01; glucose -1.23 to -0.05; HOMA-IR -2.86 to -0.48) Methods, limits and funding Outcomes: Body weight, fasting glucose, HOMA-IR, lipids Limitations: Standardized effect sizes (not mg/dL); wide intervals, small trials. The abstract text in my copy was partly cut, so waist-to-hip and HDL numbers are not quoted. Read: abstract
Martins 2019 Double-blind placebo-controlled randomized clinical trial of ginger (Zingiber officinale Rosc.) addition in migraine acute treatment. Cephalalgia · PMID 29768938 · DOI	Controlled trial	60 Adults with episodic migraine attacks treated in an emergency room	Ginger dry extract (5% active ingredient) unspecified 400 mg once, with 100 mg intravenous ketoprofen Single attack, followed 2 hours · vs Placebo (cellulose) plus ketoprofen	Better clinical response with ginger at 1 h (p=0.04), 1.5 h (p=0.01) and 2 h (p=0.04), with less pain and better functioning at all times. p-values as listed; magnitudes not in abstract (null) Methods, limits and funding Outcomes: Pain severity, functional status, migraine symptoms, treatment satisfaction at 0.5, 1, 1.5 and 2 hours Limitations: Single-centre, 60 people; ginger was added to a drug, not tested alone. Abstract only; risk of bias, funding and full methods not verified. Registration: NCT02568644 Read: abstract
Martins 2020 Double-blind placebo-controlled randomized clinical trial of ginger (Zingiber officinale Rosc.) in the prophylactic treatment of migraine. Cephalalgia · PMID 31398997 · DOI	Controlled trial	107 Adults aged 18-60 with episodic migraine not taking preventive medicine	Ginger dry extract (5% active ingredient) unspecified 200 mg three times daily (600 mg/day) 3 months · vs Cellulose placebo	Responder rate did not differ between groups. Severe-pain days, analgesic use and attack duration fell in both groups with no difference between ginger and placebo. No significant difference (numbers not in abstract) Methods, limits and funding Outcomes: Responders (at least 50% fewer attacks), days with severe pain, analgesic use, attack duration Limitations: Single-centre. Abstract only; risk of bias, funding and full methods not verified. Registration: NCT02570633 Read: abstract
McEwen 2015 The influence of herbal medicine on platelet function and coagulation: a narrative review Semin Thromb Hemost · PMID 25839871 · DOI	Systematic review		Herbal medicines rhizome	Lists ginger among herbs reported to reduce platelet aggregation (in vitro studies showed promise) and says repeat platelet and coagulation testing may be needed in patients on warfarin after herbs are excluded. Ginger is not among the herbs it names as interacting with warfarin, clopidogrel or aspirin. Methods, limits and funding Limitations: Narrative review, abstract only. Read: abstract
McParlin 2016 Treatments for Hyperemesis Gravidarum and Nausea and Vomiting in Pregnancy: A Systematic Review. JAMA · PMID 27701665 · DOI	Systematic review	8930 Pregnant women with nausea and vomiting or hyperemesis; 78 studies (67 RCTs)	Ginger among many treatments unspecified Not given in abstract Varied · vs Placebo and other treatments	In 35 RCTs at low risk of bias, ginger, vitamin B6, antihistamines and some drugs were associated with improved symptoms versus placebo. Narrative synthesis; no pooled number for ginger in the abstract Methods, limits and funding Outcomes: Symptom improvement Limitations: Meta-analysis was not possible because of heterogeneity and incomplete reporting. The abstract gives no ginger-specific numbers. Read: abstract
Morgan 1978 Jamaica ginger paralysis. Forty-seven-year follow-up Arch Neurol · PMID 666613 · DOI	Case series	11 survivors of 1930 poisoning	Adulterated 'Jamaica ginger' extract rhizome	In 1930 thousands of Americans were poisoned by an illicit Jamaica ginger extract ('jake') adulterated with triorthocresyl phosphate (TOCP), a neurotoxic organophosphate. Eleven survivors were interviewed 47 years later and four examined; findings were spasticity and abnormal reflexes (upper motor neuron syndrome). Methods, limits and funding Limitations: Historical episode of a deliberately adulterated alcohol-based extract, not of ginger itself; tells us nothing about modern products. Read: abstract
Moshfeghinia 2024 Ginger for Pain Management in Primary Dysmenorrhea: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. J Integr Complement Med · PMID 38770631 · DOI	Meta-analysis	Women with primary dysmenorrhea; 24 studies, 12 pooled	Ginger unspecified Not given in abstract Usually the first days of the period · vs Placebo; NSAIDs; exercise	Less pain intensity and shorter pain duration than placebo; no difference from NSAIDs or exercise. Intensity SMD -1.13; duration SMD -0.29; vs NSAIDs SMD 0.01 (Intensity -1.59 to -0.68 (I2 81.05%); duration -0.46 to -0.12; vs NSAIDs -0.24 to 0.25) Methods, limits and funding Outcomes: Pain intensity and duration Limitations: High heterogeneity; risk of bias in included studies; safety data infrequently reported. Registration: PROSPERO CRD42023418001 Read: abstract
Mozaffari-Khosravi 2014 The effect of ginger powder supplementation on insulin resistance and glycemic indices in patients with type 2 diabetes: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Complement Ther Med · PMID 24559810 · DOI	Controlled trial	88 Type 2 diabetes	Ginger powder capsules (1 g each) rhizome 3 g per day (three 1 g capsules) 8 weeks · vs Microcrystalline cellulose placebo	Fasting glucose fell 10.5% (p=0.003) with ginger and rose 21% with placebo (p=0.01); HbA1c followed; QUICKI improved more with ginger. FBS -10.5% vs +21% Methods, limits and funding Outcomes: HbA1c, fasting glucose, insulin resistance Limitations: Single trial; 3 g/day is a high dose. Read: abstract
Mukkavilli 2017 Absorption, Metabolic Stability, and Pharmacokinetics of Ginger Phytochemicals Molecules · PMID 28358331 · DOI	In vitro + mouse pharmacokinetics animal	Mouse, rat, dog and human liver microsomes; mice	Ginger extract (6-, 8-, 10-gingerol, 6-shogaol) rhizome 250 mg/kg orally in mice acute · vs ketoconazole co-dosing	Stable in simulated gut fluids but metabolically unstable; beta-glucuronidase raised exposure 10-700 fold; ketoconazole raised free levels 3-60 fold; phase II metabolism is the main clearance route. see results Methods, limits and funding Outcomes: Solubility, stability, clearance, plasma exposure Limitations: Mouse and test-tube; human relevance inferred. Read: abstract
Mustafa 2024 First report of aflatoxin and ochratoxin contamination in ginger collected from different agroclimatic zones from Punjab, Pakistan Toxicon · PMID 39433257 · DOI	Other in-vitro	ginger samples	Raw and dried ginger rhizome rhizome	All raw and commercial powder ginger samples were contaminated with aflatoxin B1 (29.88-1060.12 ug/kg), many above the authors' stated permissible limits; ochratoxin A 0.05-3.42 ug/kg; lower-altitude samples more contaminated. Authors advise cooler storage. Methods, limits and funding Limitations: One region (Punjab, Pakistan); 'permissible limit' not specified in the abstract; says nothing about ginger sold elsewhere. Read: abstract
NCBI 2026 NCBI Taxonomy: Zingiber officinale (TaxId 94328) NCBI Taxonomy · Source	Database record	n/a	n/a	Authority 'Roscoe, 1807'; common name ginger; 'Zingiber officinalis' listed as a misspelling. Methods, limits and funding Outcomes: n/a Limitations: Read via E-utilities on 2026-10-24. Read: full-text
Nanthakomon 2006 The efficacy of ginger in prevention of postoperative nausea and vomiting after major gynecologic surgery. J Med Assoc Thai · PMID 17725149	Controlled trial	120 Major gynecologic surgery	Ginger powder capsules rhizome 1 g (two 0.5 g capsules) one hour before surgery single dose · vs Placebo	Nausea 48.3% vs 66.7%; lower scores at 2, 6, 12, 24 h; vomiting less frequent. No side effects detected. Nausea 48.3% vs 66.7% Methods, limits and funding Outcomes: Visual analogue nausea score, vomiting Limitations: Single centre. Read: abstract
National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health (NIH) 2025 Ginger (NCCIH Herbs at a Glance) NCCIH web page (last updated February 2025) · Source	Authoritative guidance		Ginger (Zingiber officinale) rhizome	Page text read. Says ginger has been taken safely by mouth as a dietary supplement in many research studies. Oral side effects named: abdominal discomfort, heartburn, diarrhea, mouth or throat irritation. Says ginger supplements in pregnancy 'may be safe' and to consult a provider; little is known about safety while breastfeeding; tells people on medicines to talk to a provider because herbs and medicines can interact. The page did not mention blood thinners, gallstones or doses. Methods, limits and funding Limitations: Consumer fact sheet; no numbers or frequencies. Silent on bleeding, gallstones and dosing. Read: full-text
Niempoog 2012 The efficacy of powdered ginger in osteoarthritis of the knee. J Med Assoc Thai · PMID 23964445	Controlled trial	60 Knee osteoarthritis	Powdered ginger capsule rhizome 1 g per day 8 weeks · vs Placebo	No improvement over placebo in pain, symptoms, daily activities or quality of life. No prominent side effects. No difference Methods, limits and funding Outcomes: KOOS score Limitations: Small; a null result. Read: abstract
Nievergelt 2010 Identification of serotonin 5-HT1A receptor partial agonists in ginger Bioorg Med Chem · PMID 20363635 · DOI	In vitro in-vitro	Human 5-HT1A receptor assays; simulated intestinal absorption	Fractions and compounds of a ginger extract rhizome Ki 3-20 micromol/L for compounds; extract Ki 11.6 microg/mL acute	Nine compounds bound; 10-shogaol, 1-dehydro-6-gingerdione and the whole lipophilic extract were partial agonists (20-60% of maximum). see results Methods, limits and funding Outcomes: Receptor binding and GTP-gamma-S activation Limitations: Binding assays; no behavioural or human data. Authors from ETH Zurich and an extract-maker address (Schoop) are listed; funding not read. Read: abstract
Nunes 2020 Clinical Evaluation of the Use of Ginger Extract in the Preventive Management of Motion Sickness. Curr Ther Res Clin Exp · PMID 32714473 · DOI	Case series	184 People with motion sickness, Brazil, open-label single arm	Zingiber officinale extract unspecified 160 mg extract (schedule per abstract: before trips) Trips 2 to 4 after an untreated Trip 1	About 27-30% improved by 20 or more MSAQ points on treated trips; total MSAQ fell versus the untreated trip. 13.04% had treatment-related adverse events, mostly stomach symptoms. 26.52%, 29.89%, 29.31% improved by 20+ points (Trips 2, 3, 4) Methods, limits and funding Outcomes: Motion Sickness Assessment Questionnaire (MSAQ) Limitations: No placebo, not blinded, historical control. Authors themselves call for blinded placebo-controlled trials. Read: abstract
Nurtjahja-Tjendraputra 2003 Effective anti-platelet and COX-1 enzyme inhibitors from pungent constituents of ginger Thromb Res · PMID 14693173 · DOI	In vitro (human whole blood + enzyme kit) in-vitro	Human whole blood; ovine COX-1	20 ginger pungent compounds and related substances IC50 3-7 micromol/L for the most active; aspirin 20 +/- 11 micromol/L acute · vs aspirin	[8]-Gingerol, [8]-shogaol, [8]-paradol and two analogues had IC50 3-7 micromol/L; [8]-paradol was the strongest COX-1 inhibitor (IC50 4 +/- 1 micromol/L). see results Methods, limits and funding Outcomes: Arachidonic-acid-induced platelet aggregation; COX-1 activity Limitations: Test tube, concentrations above those found in blood after eating ginger; ovine enzyme. Read: abstract
Okonta 2008 Herb-drug interaction: a case study of effect of ginger on the pharmacokinetic of metronidazole in rabbit Indian J Pharm Sci · PMID 20046719 · DOI	Animal research animal	rabbits	Ginger rhizome · vs Metronidazole alone	In rabbits, ginger significantly increased metronidazole absorption and half-life and lowered its clearance (P<0.05). Methods, limits and funding Limitations: Rabbit crossover; abstract gives no doses or numbers; no human data. Read: abstract
Olasehinde 2025 Zingerone as a Neuroprotective Agent Against Cognitive Disorders: A Systematic Review of Preclinical Studies. Int J Mol Sci · PMID 40649889 · DOI	Systematic review animal	9 9 animal/preclinical studies of zingerone (a compound found in cooked ginger)	Zingerone (isolated compound) unspecified Various Various · vs Control animals	Zingerone lowered IL-1 beta, IL-6 and TNF-alpha, linked to reduced NF-kB and NLRP3 inflammasome activity and reduced nNOS; no significant change in activated microglia. Anxiety-like and depression-like behaviours improved and this was linked to better cortical cholinergic transmission, less oxidative stress and higher serotonin and dopamine. Methods, limits and funding Outcomes: Neuroinflammation markers (IL-1 beta, IL-6, TNF-alpha, IBA-1) and behaviour tests of memory, anxiety-like and depressive-like behaviour Limitations: Animal work only, on an isolated compound, not whole ginger. Cannot be taken as proof of any effect in people. Abstract only; risk of bias, funding and full methods not verified. Read: abstract
Ozgoli 2009 Comparison of effects of ginger, mefenamic acid, and ibuprofen on pain in women with primary dysmenorrhea. J Altern Complement Med · PMID 19216660 · DOI	Controlled trial	150 Students with primary dysmenorrhea	Ginger rhizome powder capsules rhizome 250 mg four times a day (1 g/day) 3 days from start of period · vs Mefenamic acid 250 mg; ibuprofen 400 mg	Severity fell in all groups; no differences between ginger, mefenamic acid and ibuprofen. No severe side effects. No difference between groups Methods, limits and funding Outcomes: Pain severity, relief, satisfaction Limitations: One cycle; no placebo group. Read: abstract
Paudel 2025 Pharmacological properties of ginger (Zingiber officinale): what do meta-analyses say? a systematic review. Front Pharmacol · PMID 40808693 · DOI	Systematic review	Review of published meta-analyses (2010 to 2025) on inflammation, type 2 diabetes, oxidative stress and pregnancy nausea	Ginger supplements unspecified Commonly 1 to 3 g/day for anti-inflammatory and antioxidant purposes Various · vs Placebo or control	Ginger was linked to lower circulating CRP, hs-CRP and TNF-alpha, lower malondialdehyde and higher glutathione peroxidase. The authors note very high heterogeneity in one meta-analysis (I2 = 98.1%) and possible bias in blinding. Methods, limits and funding Outcomes: CRP, hs-CRP, TNF-alpha, malondialdehyde, glutathione peroxidase (plus diabetes and nausea outcomes covered elsewhere) Limitations: A review of reviews; no new pooled numbers for these markers in the abstract. Abstract only; risk of bias, funding and full methods not verified. Read: abstract
Pertz 2011 Effects of ginger constituents on the gastrointestinal tract: role of cholinergic M3 and serotonergic 5-HT3 and 5-HT4 receptors Planta Med · PMID 21305447 · DOI	Ex vivo animal tissue animal	Guinea-pig ileum and myenteric plexus; rat oesophageal muscle	[6]-, [8]-, [10]-gingerol (racemates), [6]-shogaol 2-10 micromol/L acute	Slight depression of maximal carbachol response at 10 micromol/L; [10]-gingerol lowered maximal 5-HT response from 93% to 65% at 3 micromol/L; no 5-HT4 effect. see results Methods, limits and funding Outcomes: M3, 5-HT3 and 5-HT4 receptor responses Limitations: Animal tissue. Read: abstract
Phillips 1993 Zingiber officinale does not affect gastric emptying rate. A randomised, placebo-controlled, crossover trial Anaesthesia · PMID 8317647 · DOI	RCT, double blind crossover	16 Healthy volunteers	Powdered ginger rhizome 1 g single dose single dose · vs placebo	No effect on emptying. none detected Methods, limits and funding Outcomes: Gastric emptying by paracetamol absorption Limitations: Indirect method; one dose. Read: abstract
Pongrojpaw 2003 The efficacy of ginger in prevention of post-operative nausea and vomiting after outpatient gynecological laparoscopy. J Med Assoc Thai · PMID 12757064	Controlled trial	80 Outpatient gynecological laparoscopy	Ginger powder capsules rhizome 1 g (two 0.5 g capsules) one hour before surgery single dose · vs Placebo	Nausea 30% vs 57.5%; lower scores at 2 and 4 h; no difference at 24 h; vomiting less frequent but not statistically different. Nausea 30% vs 57.5% Methods, limits and funding Outcomes: Nausea and vomiting Limitations: Small. Read: abstract
Pongrojpaw 2007 A randomized comparison of ginger and dimenhydrinate in the treatment of nausea and vomiting in pregnancy. J Med Assoc Thai · PMID 17957907	Controlled trial	170 Pregnant women with nausea and vomiting	Ginger powder capsules rhizome 1 g per day (0.5 g twice a day) 7 days · vs Dimenhydrinate 50 mg twice a day	No difference in nausea scores. More vomiting episodes with ginger on days 1-2; none on days 3-7. Drowsiness 5.88% with ginger vs 77.64% with dimenhydrinate (P<.01). Drowsiness 5.88% vs 77.64% Methods, limits and funding Outcomes: Visual analogue nausea score, vomiting Limitations: No placebo group. Read: abstract
Pourmasoumi 2018 The effect of ginger supplementation on lipid profile: A systematic review and meta-analysis of clinical trials. Phytomedicine · PMID 29747751 · DOI	Meta-analysis	586 Adults; 12 trials	Ginger supplementation unspecified Subgroup at or below 2 g/day vs above 2 g/day Varied · vs Control	Triglycerides and LDL fell overall; at 2 g/day or less, total cholesterol and triglycerides fell more; no significant HDL or total cholesterol change overall. TAG -17.59 mg/dl; LDL-C -4.90 mg/dl (as printed); at or below 2 g/day TAG -38.42 mg/dl, TC -12.26 mg/dl (TAG -29.32 to -5.87; LDL-C printed as -22.30 to -6.17, which does not enclose -4.90, so treat the LDL figure with care; TC (low dose) -22.37 to -2.16) Methods, limits and funding Outcomes: Triglycerides, LDL, total and HDL cholesterol Limitations: High heterogeneity (authors stratified by dose); LDL interval is inconsistent in the abstract. Read: abstract
Qiu 2015 Estimation of the binding modes with important human cytochrome P450 enzymes, drug interaction potential, pharmacokinetics, and hepatotoxicity of ginger components using molecular docking, computational, and pharmacokinetic modeling studies Drug Des Devel Ther · PMID 25733806 · DOI	In silico (computer modelling) in-vitro	Computer model of human CYP1A2, 2C9, 2C19, 2D6, 3A4	12 ginger components	Predicted high risk of interaction via CYP2C9 and CYP3A4 and low risk via CYP2C19; the authors note no remarkable effect on warfarin metabolism in humans and a synergy of ginger with nifedipine on platelet aggregation. see results Methods, limits and funding Outcomes: Docking, predicted interaction risk and ADMET Limitations: Prediction only; the abstract's warfarin and nifedipine statements are summaries of other studies, which were not read. Read: abstract
Rahimlou 2019 Effects of ginger supplementation on anthropometric, glycemic and metabolic parameters in subjects with metabolic syndrome: A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study. J Diabetes Metab Disord · PMID 31275882 · DOI	Controlled trial	37 Metabolic syndrome	Ginger powder rhizome 2 g per day 12 weeks · vs Placebo	Triglycerides, fasting glucose and insulin resistance improved vs placebo (P<0.05). Improved TG, FBS, insulin resistance Methods, limits and funding Outcomes: Triglycerides, fasting glucose, insulin resistance Limitations: Only 37 people. Read: abstract
Rjabi 2025 Antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects of ginger supplementation in adults: a GRADE-assessed systematic review and dose-response meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials. Inflammopharmacology · PMID 41123858 · DOI	Meta-analysis	Adults in 29 RCTs, many with underlying health conditions	Ginger supplements unspecified Various (dose-response analysed) Various · vs Placebo or control	All six markers improved: CRP, TNF-alpha, IL-6, malondialdehyde lower; total antioxidant capacity and superoxide dismutase higher. IL-6 effect related to dose and duration in a non-linear way. The authors warn of high heterogeneity and say results should be read cautiously, mainly in people with health conditions. CRP WMD -0.86 mg/L; TNF-alpha -1.90 pg/mL; IL-6 -1.15 pg/mL; TAC +0.22 mmol/L; MDA -0.76 umol/L; SOD +48.12 U/L (CRP -1.10 to -0.62; TNF-alpha -2.61 to -1.18; IL-6 -1.90 to -0.41; TAC 0.06 to 0.38; MDA -1.19 to -0.33; SOD 30.57 to 65.58) Methods, limits and funding Outcomes: CRP, TNF-alpha, IL-6, total antioxidant capacity, malondialdehyde, superoxide dismutase Limitations: High heterogeneity; the abstract does not give the GRADE ratings of each outcome (null). Blood markers, not symptoms. Abstract only; risk of bias, funding and full methods not verified. Registration: PROSPERO CRD420251011148 Read: abstract
Ryan 2012 Ginger (Zingiber officinale) reduces acute chemotherapy-induced nausea: a URCC CCOP study of 576 patients. Support Care Cancer · PMID 21818642 · DOI	Controlled trial	576 Adults on chemotherapy, all taking a 5-HT3 antiemetic (744 randomized)	Ginger capsules (250 mg each) rhizome 0.5, 1.0 or 1.5 g per day (three arms), capsules taken twice daily 6 days, starting 3 days before chemotherapy · vs Placebo	All ginger doses reduced acute nausea vs placebo (p=0.003); largest reductions with 0.5 g (p=0.017) and 1.0 g (p=0.036). p=0.003 across doses Methods, limits and funding Outcomes: Nausea severity on day 1 (7-point scale) Limitations: Day-1 nausea only; 91% women; delayed nausea not the primary outcome. Read: abstract
Saenghong 2012 Zingiber officinale Improves Cognitive Function of the Middle-Aged Healthy Women. Evid Based Complement Alternat Med · PMID 22235230 · DOI	Controlled trial	60 Healthy middle-aged women	Standardized ginger extract (Zingiber officinale) unspecified 400 mg or 800 mg once daily 2 months · vs Placebo	Ginger groups had significantly shorter P300 latencies, larger N100 and P300 amplitudes, and better working memory than placebo. Direction reported; effect sizes and p-values are not given in the abstract (null) Methods, limits and funding Outcomes: Working memory and cognitive function on a computerized test battery; auditory oddball event-related potentials (P300 latency, N100 and P300 amplitude), at baseline, 1 and 2 months Limitations: Abstract only; risk of bias, funding and full methods not verified. Small trial of 60 women; no replication found; an abstract-level conclusion that ginger is 'a potential cognitive enhancer' is the authors' own. Real-world benefit not shown. Read: abstract
Saleh 2025 A Triple-blind randomized controlled trial on the effects of turmeric versus ginger on inflammatory biomarkers in patients with COVID-19. Sci Rep · PMID 40841392 · DOI	Controlled trial	144 COVID-19 outpatients in Iran (2021)	Ginger tablets unspecified 3 x 500 mg tablets daily (1.5 g/day) 5 days · vs Placebo (a turmeric arm was also tested)	CRP and ESR fell more with ginger than placebo (p < 0.001), with no difference between ginger and turmeric. LDH (p = 0.349) and white blood cell count (p = 0.663) did not differ among groups. CRP and ESR p < 0.001 vs placebo; values not in abstract (null) Methods, limits and funding Outcomes: LDH, CRP, white blood cell count, ESR at baseline and day 6 Limitations: Only 5 days; blood markers only, no symptom or recovery outcome reported in the abstract; one setting. Abstract only; risk of bias, funding and full methods not verified. Registration: IRCT20120109008665N14 Read: abstract
Salih 2023 Effect of ginger (Zingiber officinale) intake on human serum lipid profile: Systematic review and meta-analysis. Phytother Res · PMID 36786398 · DOI	Meta-analysis	Adults in RCTs, 2010-2022	Ginger intake unspecified Meta-regression: higher daily dose lowered TC Varied · vs Control	Total cholesterol and triglycerides fell; LDL-C and HDL-C did not change significantly. Triglyceride drop larger in obese and diabetic people. TC SMD -0.44; TG SMD -0.61; LDL-C SMD -0.34 (not significant) (TC -0.86 to -0.02; TG -1.14 to -0.08; LDL-C -0.81 to 0.13) Methods, limits and funding Outcomes: TC, TG, LDL-C, HDL-C Limitations: Borderline intervals, number of trials not stated in abstract; disagrees with the 2022 diabetes review on lipids and with the 2018 review on LDL. Read: abstract
Schmid 1994 Comparison of Seven Commonly Used Agents for Prophylaxis of Seasickness. J Travel Med · PMID 9815340 · DOI	Controlled trial	1741 Tourist volunteers on a whale-watching trip, Norway	Ginger root among 7 agents rhizome Not given in abstract One trip · vs Six other agents; no placebo group (on ethical grounds)	In each active group 4.1-10.2% vomited and 16.4-23.5% had malaise, with no significant differences between agents. Authors recommended six of seven agents; ginger was among them. No significant difference between active groups Methods, limits and funding Outcomes: Vomiting, malaise, adverse events Limitations: No placebo group, so it cannot show that ginger works better than doing nothing. 1489 of 1741 followed up. Read: abstract
Schumacher 2024 The effect of oral supplementation of ginger on glycemic control of patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus - A systematic review and meta-analysis. Clin Nutr ESPEN · PMID 39053695 · DOI	Meta-analysis	Adults with type 2 diabetes; 5 studies	Ginger powder capsules twice daily rhizome powder 1.2-2 g/day 4 to 12 weeks · vs Placebo or control	No significant pooled effect on FBS or HbA1c, although two single studies showed an FBS drop. Not significant when pooled Methods, limits and funding Outcomes: Fasting blood sugar (FBS), HbA1c Limitations: Five studies only. Disagrees with the larger 2022 pooled analysis, so the glucose finding is not settled. Read: abstract
Semwal 2015 Gingerols and shogaols: Important nutraceutical principles from ginger Phytochemistry · PMID 26228533 · DOI	Narrative review in-vitro	Literature on gingerols and shogaols	Gingerols and shogaols rhizome	Gingerols easily lose water to form shogaols (the pungency of dried ginger); both groups show anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, anticancer and other actions in lab work; shogaols are used as quality markers. see results Methods, limits and funding Outcomes: Chemistry, biosynthesis, activities, structure-activity Limitations: Mostly lab and animal data; the authors' statements on disease treatment are not human proof. Read: abstract
Shirvani 2015 The effect of mefenamic acid and ginger on pain relief in primary dysmenorrhea: a randomized clinical trial. Arch Gynecol Obstet · PMID 25399316 · DOI	Controlled trial	122 Students with moderate to severe primary dysmenorrhea	Ginger capsules (250 mg) rhizome 250 mg every 6 hours (1 g/day) from onset of menstruation, 2 cycles · vs Mefenamic acid 250 mg every 8 h	Pain 43.49 vs 39.01 (month 1) and 38.19 vs 33.75 (month 2), no significant difference. Menstrual days slightly more with ginger. No significant difference Methods, limits and funding Outcomes: Pain VAS Limitations: No placebo group. Read: abstract
Shirvani 2017 Use of ginger versus stretching exercises for the treatment of primary dysmenorrhea: a randomized controlled trial. J Integr Med · PMID 28659234 · DOI	Controlled trial	122 Students with moderate to severe primary dysmenorrhea	Ginger capsules (250 mg) rhizome 250 mg, schedule not in abstract 2 cycles · vs Stretching exercises	Exercise was more effective than ginger for pain (31.57 vs 38.19, P=0.02) in the second cycle. Exercise better Methods, limits and funding Outcomes: Pain VAS Limitations: No placebo. Registration: IRCT 201203118822N2 Read: abstract
Smith 2004 A randomized controlled trial of ginger to treat nausea and vomiting in pregnancy. Obstet Gynecol · PMID 15051552 · DOI	Controlled trial	291 Women under 16 weeks pregnant	Oral ginger rhizome 1.05 g per day 3 weeks · vs Vitamin B6 75 mg per day	Equivalent to vitamin B6: nausea mean difference 0.2 (90% CI -0.3 to 0.8); retching 0.3 (90% CI -0.0 to 0.6); vomiting 0.5 (90% CI 0.0 to 0.9). MD 0.2 (nausea) (-0.3 to 0.8 (90% CI)) Methods, limits and funding Outcomes: Nausea, retching, vomiting Limitations: Equivalence design; no placebo arm. Read: abstract
Stewart 1991 Effects of ginger on motion sickness susceptibility and gastric function Pharmacology · PMID 2062873 · DOI	Controlled trial (motion sickness and gastric function)	28 Healthy volunteers	Powdered ginger 500 or 1,000 mg; fresh ginger 1,000 mg; scopolamine as active control rhizome 500-1,000 mg single dose · vs placebo; scopolamine 0.6 mg	Ginger gave no protection against motion sickness; scopolamine allowed 147.5 more head movements (p<0.01); 500 mg powdered ginger did not change gastric emptying and only partly reduced tachygastria. ginger: no benefit Methods, limits and funding Outcomes: Head movements to motion-sickness end point; gastric emptying; electrogastrogram Limitations: Old 1991 study, small, single-dose. Read: abstract
Talasaz 2025 Pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic interactions between food or herbal products and oral anticoagulants: evidence review, practical recommendations, and knowledge gaps Semin Thromb Hemost · PMID 39288907 · DOI	Systematic review		Food and herbal products with oral anticoagulants rhizome	Authors say RCT evidence is slim and conclusions limited; their summary states that ginger, even in small quantities, and mango (more than one fruit) can potentiate warfarin effects. The abstract does not say which studies this rests on. Methods, limits and funding Limitations: Abstract only read; the authors themselves note small studies, conflicting results and variable herbal product content. Read: abstract
Tan 2021 Warfarin and food, herbal or dietary supplement interactions: A systematic review Br J Clin Pharmacol · PMID 32478963 · DOI	Systematic review	149 warfarin users	Foods, herbs and supplements with warfarin rhizome	149 articles covering 78 foods, herbs or supplements; the conclusion names ginger among items that clinicians should know raise bleeding risk with warfarin, alongside ginkgo, green tea, St John's wort and others. Details specific to ginger were not in the abstract. Methods, limits and funding Limitations: Abstract only read; reports are mostly case reports and small studies of mixed quality. Read: abstract
Thomson 2014 Effects of ginger for nausea and vomiting in early pregnancy: a meta-analysis J Am Board Fam Med · PMID 24390893 · DOI	Meta-analysis	508 women with early-pregnancy nausea	Oral ginger rhizome about 1 g/day at least 4 days · vs Placebo	Six placebo-controlled RCTs, 508 women; about 1 g ginger daily for at least 4 days was associated with about 5-fold higher likelihood of improvement. Authors state the safety profile is still unknown. Methods, limits and funding Limitations: Small trials, heterogeneity; the authors say safety remains unknown. Read: abstract
Tiani 2024 The use of ginger bioactive compounds in pregnancy: an evidence scan and umbrella review of existing meta-analyses Adv Nutr · PMID 39343171 · DOI	Systematic review	pregnancy and lactation	Dietary ginger preparations rhizome · vs Placebo, conventional treatment	Evidence scan found 90 articles on ginger in pregnancy and lactation; seven meta-analyses (22 independent studies) mostly found ginger improves nausea with no evidence of significant adverse effects. Quality of the meta-analyses was critically low to low; included studies were heterogeneous and low quality. Methods, limits and funding Limitations: Reviews rated low quality by the authors. Read: abstract
Tjendraputra 2001 Effect of ginger constituents and synthetic analogues on cyclooxygenase-2 enzyme in intact cells Bioorg Chem · PMID 11437391 · DOI	In vitro in-vitro	Intact cells	17 ginger pungent compounds and synthetic analogues IC50 1-25 micromol/L acute	8-Paradol and 8-shogaol, and two synthetic analogues, were strongest; potency related to side-chain length and hydroxy/methoxy pattern. see results Methods, limits and funding Outcomes: COX-2 activity Limitations: Cells; no human data. Read: abstract
Vaes 2000 Interactions of warfarin with garlic, ginger, ginkgo, or ginseng: nature of the evidence Ann Pharmacother · PMID 11144706 · DOI	Systematic review		Ginger (and garlic, ginkgo, ginseng) rhizome	Searches to 1999 concluded evidence is lacking for an interaction of warfarin with garlic or ginger; true risks hard to characterise because of limited reports. Methods, limits and funding Limitations: Dated (searches to 1999); before the 2004 phenprocoumon case. Read: abstract
Victoria-Montesinos 2026 Effects of Zingiberaceae-derived interventions on memory-related and other cognitive outcomes in adults: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Front Nutr · PMID 42199754 · DOI	Meta-analysis	Adults in 18 double-blind placebo-controlled RCTs of Zingiberaceae products (curcumin, turmeric, ginger and related); the abstract does not say how many trials were of ginger	Zingiberaceae-derived products (curcumin, turmeric, ginger and related) unspecified Various (not given in abstract) Various · vs Placebo	Pooled memory-related outcomes improved; no significant pooled effect for executive function and processing speed, global cognition, or attention. The authors call the evidence very uncertain because of substantial heterogeneity, few studies, risk of bias in some trials and varied products. Memory-related SMD = 0.57 (95% CI 0.13 to 1.02) Methods, limits and funding Outcomes: Memory-related outcomes (primary), executive function and processing speed, global cognition, attention/inhibitory control Limitations: Mixes curcumin and turmeric trials with ginger; ginger-specific results are not given in the abstract (null), so it cannot be said how much of the pooled effect comes from ginger. Abstract only; risk of bias, funding and full methods not verified. Registration: PROSPERO CRD420261325966 Read: abstract
Viljoen 2014 A systematic review and meta-analysis of the effect and safety of ginger in the treatment of pregnancy-associated nausea and vomiting. Nutr J · PMID 24642205 · DOI	Meta-analysis	1278 Pregnant women with nausea and vomiting, 12 RCTs	oral ginger (preparations varied between trials) rhizome (unspecified) Mostly under or around 1500 mg/day in the favoured subgroup Varied · vs Placebo or vitamin B6	Nausea improved vs placebo; vomiting episodes did not significantly change; no significant extra risk of spontaneous abortion, heartburn or drowsiness. Nausea MD 1.20; vomiting MD 0.72 (not significant) (Nausea 95% CI 0.56-1.84; vomiting 95% CI -0.03 to 1.46; spontaneous abortion RR 3.14, 95% CI 0.65-15.11) Methods, limits and funding Outcomes: Nausea symptoms, vomiting episodes, miscarriage, heartburn, drowsiness Limitations: Authors call the evidence low quality: few studies, variable outcome reporting. Wide CI on miscarriage means a risk cannot be ruled out from this review alone. Registration: PROSPERO CRD42011001237 Read: abstract
Vutyavanich 2001 Ginger for nausea and vomiting in pregnancy: randomized, double-masked, placebo-controlled trial. Obstet Gynecol · PMID 11275030 · DOI	Controlled trial	70 Women up to 17 weeks pregnant with nausea and vomiting	Oral ginger rhizome 1 g per day 4 days · vs Placebo	Nausea score fell 2.1 vs 0.9 with placebo (P=.014); vomiting episodes fell 1.4 vs 0.3 (P<.001); 28/32 improved vs 10/35 on placebo (P<.001). No adverse effect on pregnancy outcome detected. Nausea score change 2.1 vs 0.9 Methods, limits and funding Outcomes: Nausea (visual analogue scale), vomiting episodes Limitations: Small, 4-day trial; 3 placebo dropouts. Read: abstract
Wai 2025 Effect of turmeric products on knee osteoarthritis: a systematic review and network meta-analysis. BMC Complement Med Ther · PMID 40731001 · DOI	Meta-analysis	Knee osteoarthritis (17 studies)	Turmeric/curcuminoid products rhizome not in abstract varied · vs placebo and active drugs	All turmeric preparations reduced WOMAC pain vs placebo (e.g. conventional curcuminoids MD -3.17, 95% CI -5.50 to -0.83). Certainty low. Used here only as the comparison for turmeric. MD -3.17 (-5.50 to -0.83) Methods, limits and funding Outcomes: WOMAC pain Limitations: Certainty low. Registration: PROSPERO CRD42023464749 Read: abstract
Walstab 2013 Ginger and its pungent constituents non-competitively inhibit activation of human recombinant and native 5-HT3 receptors of enteric neurons Neurogastroenterol Motil · PMID 23490018 · DOI	In vitro + ex vivo human tissue in-vitro	HEK293 cells with human 5-HT3A or 5-HT3AB receptors; human submucous plexus preparations	Ginger extracts, 6-gingerol, 6-shogaol rhizome low micromolar for pure compounds acute · vs serotonin / 2-methyl-5-HT	Concentration-dependent, non-competitive inhibition of both receptors; ginger extract did not displace the radioligand; 6-gingerol blocked 5-HT3 responses in human enteric neurons without general neurotoxicity. see results Methods, limits and funding Outcomes: Calcium influx; binding Limitations: Test-tube and tissue work; blood levels in people are lower than the micromolar range tested. Read: abstract
Warren-Walker 2025 Effect of Thermal Processing by Spray Drying on Key Ginger Compounds Metabolites · PMID 40559374 · DOI	In vitro (food processing) in-vitro	Spray-dried fresh ginger juice powders	Ginger juice with different carriers rhizome (fresh juice) · vs no-carrier and natural carriers	One commercial carrier increased [10]-, [8]-shogaol, 6-hydroxyshogaol, 6-dehydroshogaol and zingerone; natural carriers changed profile less; antioxidant capacity fell with spray drying. see results Methods, limits and funding Outcomes: Mass-spectrometry fingerprints, antioxidant and polyphenol assays Limitations: Relative intensities, not absolute amounts; compounds tentatively identified. Read: abstract
Wei 2017 6-Paradol and 6-Shogaol, the Pungent Compounds of Ginger, Promote Glucose Utilization in Adipocytes and Myotubes, and 6-Paradol Reduces Blood Glucose in High-Fat Diet-Fed Mice Int J Mol Sci · PMID 28106738 · DOI	In vitro + mouse animal	3T3-L1 adipocytes, C2C12 myotubes, high-fat-diet mice	10 ginger compounds (6-, 8-, 10-paradol, shogaols, gingerols, zingerone)	6-Paradol and 6-shogaol raised glucose use via AMPK; 6-paradol lowered blood glucose, cholesterol and body weight in mice. see results Methods, limits and funding Outcomes: Glucose use, AMPK phosphorylation; blood glucose in mice Limitations: Cell and mouse. Read: abstract
Wu 2008 Effects of ginger on gastric emptying and motility in healthy humans. Eur J Gastroenterol Hepatol · PMID 18403946 · DOI	Controlled trial	24 Healthy volunteers, crossover, Taiwan	Ginger capsules unspecified 1200 mg single dose Single test meal · vs Placebo (crossover)	Half-emptying time was shorter and contractions more frequent after ginger; no symptom differences. Half-emptying 13.1 +/- 1.1 vs 26.7 +/- 3.1 min (mean +/- SE), P<0.01 Methods, limits and funding Outcomes: Gastric half-emptying time (ultrasound), antral contractions, symptoms Limitations: Healthy people, one dose; no symptom change. Read: abstract
Yamprasert 2020 Ginger extract versus Loratadine in the treatment of allergic rhinitis: a randomized controlled trial. BMC Complement Med Ther · PMID 32312261 · DOI	Controlled trial	80 Adults with allergic rhinitis (40 ginger, 40 loratadine)	Ginger extract unspecified 500 mg 3 and 6 weeks · vs Loratadine 10 mg	Both groups improved on nasal symptoms and quality of life with no significant difference between them. Ginger group had fewer side effects such as drowsiness, fatigue, dizziness and constipation. Blood tests for kidney and liver function were fine in both groups. No significant difference between ginger and loratadine Methods, limits and funding Outcomes: Total nasal symptom score, acoustic rhinometry, rhinoconjunctivitis quality of life, safety Limitations: No placebo group, so improvement cannot be credited to ginger alone. Abstract only; risk of bias, funding and full methods not verified. Registration: NCT02576808 Read: abstract
Young 2006 Synergistic effect of ginger and nifedipine on human platelet aggregation: a study in hypertensive patients and normal volunteers Am J Chin Med · PMID 16883626 · DOI	Clinical lab	volunteers and hypertensive patients	Ginger with nifedipine rhizome 1 g ginger + 10 mg nifedipine daily (as stated in abstract) · vs Nifedipine alone	Ginger or aspirin each added to nifedipine's anti-platelet-aggregation effect in volunteers and hypertensive patients; authors say 1 g ginger with 10 mg nifedipine daily might be valuable for cardiovascular complications. This is a laboratory platelet-aggregation measure, not bleeding. Methods, limits and funding Limitations: Abstract gives no numbers or sample size; surrogate platelet test only; no bleeding outcome. Read: abstract
Yu 2011 Examination of the pharmacokinetics of active ingredients of ginger in humans AAPS J · PMID 21638149 · DOI	Pharmacokinetic study in humans	Healthy volunteers (nine per the EMA report; abstract gives no number)	Ginger extract rhizome 2.0 g oral blood sampling over 72 h; repeated daily dosing arm	Free 10-gingerol 9.5 +/- 2.2 and 6-shogaol 13.6 +/- 6.9 ng/mL at 1 h; no free 6- or 8-gingerol; glucuronides 0.17-0.73 microg/mL; very low conjugates (2-3 ng/mL) in colon tissue; half-lives 1-3 h; no accumulation. see results Methods, limits and funding Outcomes: Free and conjugated gingerols and 6-shogaol in plasma and colon tissue Limitations: Small; one product. Read: abstract
Zhang 2021 Ginger (Zingiber officinale Rosc.) and its bioactive components are potential resources for health beneficial agents Phytother Res · PMID 32954562 · DOI	Narrative review in-vitro	Literature on chemistry and pharmacology	Ginger and its compounds rhizome	Over 160 constituents isolated; 6-gingerol and 6-shogaol are rapidly cleared from blood and detected as glucuronide and sulfate conjugates; the authors say there is not enough data to rule out toxicity with long use. see results Methods, limits and funding Outcomes: Constituents, activities, pharmacokinetics Limitations: Narrative review, not a systematic search. Read: abstract
Zhang 2022 Pharmacokinetics of Gingerols, Shogaols, and Their Metabolites in Asthma Patients. J Agric Food Chem · PMID 35916113 · DOI	Other	Adults with asthma	Ginger root extract supplement rhizome 1.0 g twice daily 56 days	Ketone reduction was the main metabolic route; about one-third of 6-gingerol and over 90% of 6-shogaol were converted to metabolites. Peak levels in under 2 hours; half-lives 0.6 to 2.4 hours; absorption higher after 56 days of use. Tmax under 2 h; t1/2 0.6-2.4 h Methods, limits and funding Outcomes: Blood levels of gingerols, shogaols and metabolites Limitations: Patients with asthma; n not in abstract. Read: abstract
Zhao 2023 Ginger (Zingiber officinale Roscoe) preparations for prophylaxis of postoperative nausea and vomiting: A Bayesian network meta-analysis. J Ethnopharmacol · PMID 37379959 · DOI	Meta-analysis	2199 Surgical patients; 18 publications	Ginger powder, ginger oil and other preparations unspecified Varied Varied · vs Placebo	Ginger oil ranked best for reducing postoperative vomiting versus placebo; for postoperative nausea ginger showed no clear advantage over placebo. Benefits were larger with preoperative dosing. Ginger oil vs placebo for vomiting RR 0.39 (95% CI 0.16-0.96) Methods, limits and funding Outcomes: Postoperative vomiting and nausea, antiemetic use Limitations: Authors rate certainty moderate to low for nausea. Result conflicts with the two meta-analyses above, which found a nausea benefit but not a vomiting benefit. Registration: PROSPERO CRD42021246073 Read: abstract
Zhong 2026 Mood food: antidepressant effects of culinary spices. Front Nutr · PMID 41756633 · DOI	Narrative review	Review of culinary spices including ginger for depression	Culinary spices including ginger unspecified Various Various · vs Various	The authors say several spices, including ginger, 'show similar antidepressant effects' through neuroinflammation, oxidative stress, monoamine neurotransmitters, neuroplasticity and the gut-brain axis. The abstract gives no ginger-specific human data (null). Methods, limits and funding Outcomes: Antidepressant effects and mechanisms Limitations: Narrative review; abstract gives no numbers and no ginger-specific human trials, so it is weak support. Abstract only; risk of bias, funding and full methods not verified. Read: abstract
Zhu 2021 Efficacy of Ginger in Preventing Postoperative Nausea and Vomiting: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. J Nurs Scholarsh · PMID 34312974 · DOI	Meta-analysis	1417 Surgical patients; 14 RCTs	oral ginger (preparations varied between trials) unspecified Not given in abstract Varied · vs Placebo; prophylactic antiemetics	Vs placebo: lower nausea severity and less rescue antiemetic use; lower nausea incidence beyond 6 hours; vomiting incidence not significantly different. Vs antiemetic drugs: lower nausea incidence, similar vomiting. Nausea severity MD -0.71; nausea incidence beyond 6 h RR 0.68; vomiting RR 0.78 (not significant) (Severity -1.37 to -0.06; incidence 0.55-0.85; vomiting 0.42-1.44) Methods, limits and funding Outcomes: Nausea severity, nausea and vomiting incidence, rescue antiemetic use Limitations: Authors say more trials against standard antiemetics are needed before ginger could replace them. Read: abstract
Zick 2008 Pharmacokinetics of 6-gingerol, 8-gingerol, 10-gingerol, and 6-shogaol and conjugate metabolites in healthy human subjects Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev · PMID 18708382 · DOI	Dose escalation clinical trial (pharmacokinetics)	27 Healthy volunteers	Ginger extract (250 mg dry extract held 15 mg total gingerols per the EMA report) rhizome 100 mg to 2.0 g, single oral dose single dose, blood to 72 h	No free compounds detected; glucuronides of all four detected; 6-gingerol sulfate above 1.0 g; half-lives under 2 h; Cmax values at 2.0 g listed in the abstract. see results Methods, limits and funding Outcomes: Blood levels of 6-, 8-, 10-gingerol, 6-shogaol and conjugates Limitations: 3-9 people per dose; abstract values for AUC and Tmax appear mis-typed (identical figures reported for both), so only Cmax and half-life are quoted. Read: abstract

What we do not know yet

What the evidence supports: ginger powder for nausea in early pregnancy and for period pain has the best support, with moderate certainty, and heartburn and mild stomach upset are the usual side effects.
What is uncertain: trials differ in product, dose and quality, so the best dose and form are not settled. Reviews disagree on osteoarthritis, blood sugar, chemotherapy nausea and after-surgery nausea.
Mind and brain: memory rests on one small trial, mood and sleep on one null trial each, and no trial tested swallowed ginger for sleep or people with depression or anxiety disorders.
Bleeding: no trial tests ginger in people on warfarin, other anticoagulants or antiplatelet drugs, or around surgery. The only controlled data are two small healthy-volunteer studies (8 and 12 men) that showed no effect, against one case report and some review warnings.
Pregnancy: safety rests on small, short trials and reviews of low to high quality; the miscarriage estimate is imprecise, and the EU and NIH advice differ.
Gallstones and reflux: no study in people with gallstones, and no trial designed for people with reflux disease.
Tea, fresh root and food: no placebo-controlled trial among those read, and no trial dose can be translated into teaspoons.
Interactions with transplant drugs (cyclosporine, tacrolimus) and metronidazole come from rat and rabbit studies, with one human case; blood sugar and blood pressure medicine interactions have not been studied as interactions.
Quality: no modern survey of heavy metals, pesticides or adulteration in ginger supplements was verified. Mould toxins were found in ginger from one region, which does not show what is on shelves elsewhere.
Not read: the German Commission E and WHO monographs, FDA pages, and the full NIH LiverTox entry (only its opening statement was read). Statements about them are not made here.

How new research is added

New studies are found by a saved PubMed search and are placed in a review queue. A person reads each one before it changes any evidence rating, safety wording or dose information. New publications never change ratings automatically.

Lab markers

What changed in blood or saliva tests during trials. A changed number is not the same as feeling or being healthier, and we give no "normal ranges".

Metabolic 5

↕

Fasting blood sugar

Mixed results in trials

Blood sugar level after an overnight fast.

Low certainty

Results and what it means

Why it was measured

Used to track diabetes control.

Statistical vs. clinical meaning

Statistical lowering in two of three reviews; the 2024 review of five trials found nothing. A lab number, not a clinical outcome.

Safety implication

If you take diabetes medicine, ginger might add to its effect; check with your doctor.

Study	Result	People	Product
³²	FBS WMD -18.81 (95% CI -28.70 to -8.92; I2 77.4%)	Adults with type 2 diabetes, 10 articles	Ginger supplementation vs control
⁹⁶	No significant pooled effect on FBS; two of five studies showed a reduction	Adults with type 2 diabetes, 5 studies	1.2-2 g/day ginger powder, 4-12 weeks
⁶²	Fasting glucose SMD -0.68 (95% CI -1.23 to -0.05)	Overweight/obese adults, 14 RCTs	Ginger supplementation

^{32 96 62}

↕

HbA1c

Mixed results in trials

Average blood sugar over the past 2 to 3 months.

Low certainty

Results and what it means

Why it was measured

Standard measure of long-term blood sugar control.

Statistical vs. clinical meaning

Very high heterogeneity; the two reviews conflict. A -0.57 point change would be meaningful if real, but the evidence is unstable.

Safety implication

As for fasting glucose.

Study	Result	People	Product
³²	HbA1c WMD -0.57 (95% CI -0.93 to -0.20; I2 88.6%)	Adults with type 2 diabetes	Ginger supplementation
⁹⁶	No significant pooled effect on HbA1c	Adults with type 2 diabetes	1.2-2 g/day ginger powder, 4-12 weeks

^{32 96}

▼

Triglycerides

Lowered in trials

A blood fat linked to heart disease risk.

Very low certainty

Results and what it means

Why it was measured

Used in lipid screening.

Statistical vs. clinical meaning

Lowered in two reviews with borderline intervals; unchanged in the diabetes-only review. A lab number only.

Safety implication

None specific beyond usual ginger cautions.

Study	Result	People	Product
⁸⁷	TAG -17.59 mg/dl (95% CI -29.32 to -5.87); -38.42 mg/dl at 2 g/day or less	Adults, 12 trials (586 people)	Ginger supplementation
⁹⁴	TG SMD -0.61 (95% CI -1.14 to -0.08)	Adults, RCTs 2010-2022	Ginger intake
³²	No significant change in TG	Adults with type 2 diabetes	Ginger supplementation

^{87 94 32}

↕

LDL cholesterol

Mixed results in trials

The cholesterol carried by low-density lipoprotein, often called bad cholesterol.

Very low certainty

Results and what it means

Why it was measured

Used to estimate heart disease risk.

Statistical vs. clinical meaning

One review reports a fall (with an inconsistent interval); another finds no significant change.

Safety implication

None specific.

Study	Result	People	Product
⁸⁷	LDL-C -4.90 mg/dl (printed interval -22.30 to -6.17, which does not contain the estimate, so treat as uncertain); no change at either dose subgroup	Adults, 12 trials	Ginger supplementation
⁹⁴	LDL-C SMD -0.34 (95% CI -0.81 to 0.13), not significant	Adults, RCTs	Ginger intake

^{87 94}

●

HDL cholesterol

No clear change in trials

The cholesterol carried by high-density lipoprotein, often called good cholesterol.

Very low certainty

Results and what it means

Why it was measured

Used in lipid screening.

Statistical vs. clinical meaning

Both reviews found a borderline, non-significant rise. One 2019 review of overweight people reported higher HDL, but the number was not readable in the abstract copy used here.

Safety implication

None specific.

Study	Result	People	Product
⁸⁷	HDL-C 2.18 mg/dl (95% CI -0.08 to 4.45; P=0.059), not significant	Adults, 12 trials	Ginger supplementation
⁹⁴	HDL-C SMD 0.40 (95% CI -0.01 to 0.80; P=0.057), not significant	Adults, RCTs	Ginger intake

^{87 94}

Inflammatory 4

▼

C-reactive protein (CRP)

Lowered in trials

A blood protein the liver makes when there is inflammation in the body. Higher means more inflammation.

Low certainty

Results and what it means

Why it was measured

A common, cheap blood test for general inflammation.

Statistical vs. clinical meaning

Statistically significant on average. A fall of under 1 mg/L is small and the clinical meaning is not shown; heterogeneity is high.

Safety implication

None directly.

Study	Result	People	Product
⁹⁰	WMD -0.86 mg/L (95% CI -1.10 to -0.62) across 29 RCTs	Adults, many with underlying conditions	Ginger supplements, various doses
⁹³	Greater drop in CRP than placebo (p < 0.001); no difference vs turmeric (p = 0.263); values not given in the abstract	144 COVID-19 outpatients	1.5 g/day for 5 days
⁸²	Ginger linked to lower CRP and hs-CRP in the meta-analyses reviewed	Various	Commonly 1 to 3 g/day

^{90 93 82}

▼

TNF-alpha

Lowered in trials

A signalling protein released by immune cells that drives inflammation.

Low certainty

Results and what it means

Why it was measured

Used in trials as a measure of immune inflammatory activity.

Statistical vs. clinical meaning

Significant on average but lab research marker; clinical meaning unknown.

Safety implication

None directly.

Study	Result	People	Product
⁹⁰	WMD -1.90 pg/mL (95% CI -2.61 to -1.18)	Adults in 29 RCTs (not all measured TNF-alpha)	Ginger supplements
⁸²	Ginger linked to lower TNF-alpha in the meta-analyses reviewed	Various	Commonly 1 to 3 g/day

^{90 82}

▼

Interleukin-6 (IL-6)

Lowered in trials

A signalling protein in the immune system that rises in inflammation.

Low certainty

Results and what it means

Why it was measured

Another measure of inflammatory activity.

Statistical vs. clinical meaning

Statistically significant; the authors flag high heterogeneity.

Safety implication

None directly.

Study	Result	People	Product
⁹⁰	WMD -1.15 pg/mL (95% CI -1.90 to -0.41); effect related to dose and duration in a non-linear way	Adults in 29 RCTs	Ginger supplements

⁹⁰

▼

Erythrocyte sedimentation rate (ESR)

Lowered in trials

How fast red blood cells settle in a tube of blood; faster usually means more inflammation.

Very low certainty

Results and what it means

Why it was measured

A simple general inflammation test.

Statistical vs. clinical meaning

One 5-day trial in one illness; no clinical outcome given.

Safety implication

None directly.

Study	Result	People	Product
⁹³	Greater drop than placebo (p < 0.001); no difference vs turmeric (p > 0.99); values not given in the abstract	144 COVID-19 outpatients	1.5 g/day for 5 days

⁹³

Organ function 1

●

White blood cell count

No clear change in trials

The number of infection-fighting cells in the blood.

Very low certainty

Results and what it means

Why it was measured

Checks for immune activation or suppression.

Statistical vs. clinical meaning

One short trial; no effect on this marker was seen.

Safety implication

Normal white cell counts in this trial give no sign of immune suppression.

Study	Result	People	Product
⁹³	No difference among groups (p = 0.663); LDH also unchanged (p = 0.349)	144 COVID-19 outpatients	1.5 g/day for 5 days

⁹³

Other 7

↕

Antioxidant and oxidative stress markers (MDA, SOD, total antioxidant capacity)

Mixed results in trials

Blood tests showing damage from oxidation (malondialdehyde, MDA) and the body's antioxidant defences (superoxide dismutase, SOD; total antioxidant capacity, TAC).

Low certainty

Results and what it means

Why it was measured

Used to see whether a supplement shifts oxidative balance.

Statistical vs. clinical meaning

Direction is consistent but 'mixed' here because heterogeneity is high and these are surrogate markers.

Safety implication

None directly.

Study	Result	People	Product
⁹⁰	MDA WMD -0.76 umol/L (CI -1.19 to -0.33); TAC +0.22 mmol/L (CI 0.06 to 0.38); SOD +48.12 U/L (CI 30.57 to 65.58)	Adults in 29 RCTs	Ginger supplements
⁸²	Lower MDA and higher glutathione peroxidase in the meta-analyses reviewed	Various	Commonly 1 to 3 g/day

^{90 82}

↕

P300 and N100 brain-response measures (EEG)

Mixed results in trials

Tiny electrical brain signals recorded while a person listens for a rare tone. A shorter P300 delay and larger signals are taken as a sign of faster, stronger attention and processing.

Very low certainty

Results and what it means

Why it was measured

A lab measure of how quickly the brain processes information.

Statistical vs. clinical meaning

A lab brain measure from one small trial; it does not mean better memory in daily life.

Safety implication

None directly.

Study	Result	People	Product
⁹²	Shorter P300 latency (lowered); larger N100 and P300 amplitudes (raised); values not in the abstract	60 healthy middle-aged women	400 mg or 800 mg ginger extract once daily, 2 months

⁹²

▲

Working memory (computerised tests)

Raised in trials

How well a person can hold and use information for a few seconds, measured with computer tests.

Very low certainty

Results and what it means

Why it was measured

Tests short-term mental performance.

Statistical vs. clinical meaning

A statistically significant pooled memory effect, but the product mix and the authors' 'very uncertain' rating mean it cannot be assigned to ginger alone.

Safety implication

None directly.

Study	Result	People	Product
⁹²	Enhanced working memory in ginger groups (numbers not in the abstract)	60 healthy middle-aged women	400 mg or 800 mg ginger extract once daily, 2 months
¹⁰⁸	Pooled memory-related outcomes SMD 0.57 (95% CI 0.13 to 1.02) across mixed Zingiberaceae products	Adults in 18 RCTs	Curcumin, turmeric, ginger and related

^{92 108}

●

Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index (PSQI) and Insomnia Severity Index (ISI)

No clear change in trials

Questionnaires where people score their own sleep. Lower scores mean better sleep.

Very low certainty

Results and what it means

Why it was measured

The usual way to measure self-rated sleep in trials.

Statistical vs. clinical meaning

No difference; very small trial.

Safety implication

None directly.

Study	Result	People	Product
⁵⁰	PSQI difference 0.0 (CI -3.0 to 2.9); ISI -0.2 (CI -3.9 to 3.4) vs warm water alone	28 adults with insomnia symptoms	Ginger foot bath nightly, 2 weeks (topical)

⁵⁰

●

Depression, anxiety, stress and fatigue ratings

No clear change in trials

Self-rated questionnaires about low mood, worry, stress and tiredness. The abstract does not name the exact scales used.

Low certainty

Results and what it means

Why it was measured

The standard way to see whether a supplement changes how people feel.

Statistical vs. clinical meaning

A real null result in healthy people over two weeks; says nothing about people with a mood disorder.

Safety implication

No moderate or severe adverse events reported.

Study	Result	People	Product
²²	No difference between ginger and placebo for depression, anxiety, stress, fatigue or quality of life (numbers not in the abstract)	51 healthy adults aged 18 to 30	1.2 g/day ginger root powder, 14 days

²²

↕

Migraine pain severity and attack frequency

Mixed results in trials

How bad migraine pain is (usually a 0 to 10 scale) and how often attacks happen.

Low certainty

Results and what it means

Why it was measured

The main clinical outcomes in migraine trials.

Statistical vs. clinical meaning

Patient-reported outcomes (so closer to a clinical outcome than blood tests), but results are small-trial and add-on based.

Safety implication

None directly.

Study	Result	People	Product
⁶³	Better clinical response at 1 h (p=0.04), 1.5 h (p=0.01), 2 h (p=0.04) when added to ketoprofen	60 adults, migraine attack	400 mg ginger extract once
⁶⁴	No difference in responders (50% fewer attacks), severe-pain days, analgesic use or attack duration vs placebo	107 adults, episodic migraine	600 mg/day, 3 months
⁹	Acute add-on MD -1.27 at 2 h; preventive add-on MD -3.18 at 3 months (low certainty); other comparisons very uncertain	8 RCTs, 594 patients	Ginger, various

^{63 64 17 9}

▼

Gastric half-emptying time

Lowered in trials

How long it takes half a test meal to leave the stomach, measured by ultrasound.

Low certainty

Results and what it means

Why it was measured

Used to see whether ginger speeds digestion.

Statistical vs. clinical meaning

Faster emptying in both small crossover studies, but symptoms did not improve in either. Faster emptying is not the same as feeling better.

Safety implication

None specific.

Study	Result	People	Product
¹¹⁵	13.1 +/- 1.1 vs 26.7 +/- 3.1 min with placebo (mean +/- SE; P<0.01)	24 healthy volunteers	1200 mg ginger single dose
⁴¹	12.3 (8.5-17.0) vs 16.1 (8.3-22.6) min, median (range), P<=0.05	11 patients with functional dyspepsia	1.2 g ginger single dose

^{115 41}

Dosage and forms

What researchers actually gave people in trials. These are study numbers, not advice for you.

1000–2000mg of extract a day in most trials

1–8weeks is how long most trials lasted

400–3,000mg a day: the full range tested

17studies with a stated dose

Study doses are not advice and may not suit you. Ask a clinician or pharmacist.

How to read these numbers: four different kinds of dose

Five kinds of numbers must not be mixed. (1) Studied doses: in the trials we read, ginger powder was usually taken at about 0.5 to 3 g a day. Nausea in pregnancy: 1 to 1.05 g a day for 4 days to 3 weeks. Chemotherapy: 0.5 to 1.5 g a day in a large 744-person trial (the smaller 0.5 g and 1.0 g doses worked best for day-1 nausea), and a standardized capsule giving 84 mg a day of gingerols and shogaols in a 103-person trial. Surgery: 1 g once, one hour before. Period pain: 1 g a day for 3 days to 2 cycles. Knee osteoarthritis: 0.75 to 1 g a day for 8 to 12 weeks (the 1 g trial found no benefit). Blood sugar and weight: 2 to 3 g a day for 8 to 12 weeks. Migraine: 400 mg of a 5 percent extract once, with a drug. The 2022 umbrella review said 0.5 to 3 g a day in capsules for up to 3 months was consistently reported as effective, but also noted poor reporting of products and no dose-comparison trials. A 2014 pregnancy review suggested doses under 1,500 mg a day for nausea; a 2024 dose-response review of weight found 2 g a day effective. These are statistical hints, not prescriptions. (2) Blood levels: in a study of adults with asthma taking 1.0 g of ginger extract twice a day, gingerols, shogaols and their breakdown products peaked in under 2 hours, with half-lives of 0.6 to 2.4 hours; over 90 percent of 6-shogaol and about one-third of 6-gingerol had been converted to other products, and levels were higher after 56 days than at the start. This fits taking ginger shortly before travel or surgery, but blood levels of one marker are not proof of benefit. (3) Label serving sizes are set by the maker and may be powder, extract, tincture, tea bag, chews or a blend, and need not match any trial. (4) Official guidance: the final EU herbal monograph (EMA, adopted 7 May 2025) lists for well-established use 1 to 2 g of powdered ginger one hour before travel to prevent motion-sickness nausea, and for traditional use 500 to 750 mg half an hour before travel, plus 0.18 to 1 g three times a day of powder or 1:10 and 1:2 tinctures for mild gut complaints, appetite, minor joint pain and colds. It says adults and elderly only for most uses, not under 18, and advises seeing a doctor if symptoms last beyond 2 weeks (gut, appetite), 4 weeks (joints) or 1 week (colds). It states that data on 300 to 1000 pregnancy outcomes show no malformations or newborn toxicity, but as a precaution it is preferable to avoid ginger in pregnancy, and that use while breastfeeding is not recommended. No interactions are known to the EMA. Common side effects: stomach upset, belching, indigestion, heartburn and nausea. (5) Food amounts (fresh root, tea, cooking) were not measured in the trials we read, so no trial dose can be translated into teaspoons. None of these is a prescription. Pregnant women, people taking blood thinners or diabetes medicines, and anyone due for surgery should ask a clinician before using ginger as a supplement (our caution; the EMA lists no known interactions).

Doses used in studies 17

Nausea and vomiting of pregnancy

Pregnant women up to 17 weeks with nausea and vomiting · 70 people · compared with placebo

1,000 mg a day

1 g per day · 4 days

Ginger (form not stated) · rhizome

What the trial found

Nausea score fell 2.1 vs 0.9 (P=.014); vomiting episodes fell 1.4 vs 0.3 (P<.001); 28/32 improved vs 10/35.

¹¹⁰

Nausea and vomiting of pregnancy

Women under 16 weeks pregnant · 291 people · compared with vitamin b6 75 mg/day

1,050 mg a day

1.05 g per day · 3 weeks

Ginger (form not stated) · rhizome

What the trial found

Equivalent to vitamin B6 for nausea, retching and vomiting.

¹⁰⁰

Nausea and vomiting of pregnancy

Pregnant women with nausea and vomiting · 170 people · compared with dimenhydrinate 50 mg twice a day

1,000 mg a day

0.5 g twice a day · 7 days

Ginger powder capsule · rhizome

What the trial found

Nausea scores similar; more vomiting with ginger on days 1-2; drowsiness 5.88% vs 77.64%.

⁸⁶

Postoperative nausea and vomiting

Major gynecologic surgery · 120 people · compared with placebo

1,000 mg a day

Two 0.5 g capsules one hour before surgery · Single dose

Ginger powder capsules · rhizome

What the trial found

Nausea 48.3% vs 66.7%; vomiting less frequent.

⁷³

Postoperative nausea

Outpatient gynecological laparoscopy · 80 people · compared with placebo

1,000 mg a day

Two 0.5 g capsules one hour before surgery · Single dose

Ginger powder capsules · rhizome

What the trial found

Nausea 30% vs 57.5%; vomiting not significantly different.

⁸⁵

Motion sickness

Volunteers with motion sickness history, lab-induced · 13 people · compared with placebo (crossover)

2,000 mg a day

1,000 mg and 2,000 mg tested, single dose · Single dose

Ginger · rhizome

What the trial found

Both doses reduced nausea and stomach rhythm disturbance.

⁵⁵

Motion sickness

Volunteers in rotating chair · 28 people · compared with placebo; scopolamine

1,000 mg a day

500 or 1,000 mg powder; 1,000 mg fresh · Single dose

Powdered or fresh ginger root · rhizome

What the trial found

No protection against motion sickness; scopolamine worked.

¹⁰¹

Knee pain and function

Knee osteoarthritis · 60 people · compared with placebo

1,000 mg a day

1 g per day · 8 weeks

Powdered ginger capsule · rhizome

What the trial found

No improvement over placebo.

⁷⁵

Traditional preparations Ayurveda, not clinical dosing

The three-herb osteoarthritis trial measured a blood marker (PGE2) in 60 people.

^{40 9}

Safety

What studies and official sources say about side effects, medicines and who should check first. Each point shows what kind of evidence it comes from.

Main points to know 8

Ginger as food and at supplement doses looks well tolerated in studies. NCCIH says ginger has been taken safely by mouth as a dietary supplement in many research studies. A 2022 umbrella review of 24 systematic reviews concluded that dietary ginger appears safe, with 0.5 to 3 g a day in capsules for up to 3 months consistently reported as effective. The EU herbal monograph (2025) reports no case of overdose. These are mostly short trials; the reviews report poor trial reporting and wide differences between products, so they cannot rule out uncommon problems or effects of long use at high doses. Systematic review ^{74 21 6 34}
Mild stomach effects are the most common problem, including heartburn. The EU monograph lists stomach upset, belching, indigestion, heartburn and nausea as common (between 1 in 100 and 1 in 10 people). NCCIH names abdominal discomfort, heartburn, diarrhea and mouth or throat irritation. In an 8-week open-label study of 1080 mg a day in 47 people with indigestion, bloating (14.9%), heartburn (12.8%) and diarrhea (10.6%) were mild and temporary and nobody stopped. If you already have reflux, ginger may make heartburn worse in some people; taking it with food and starting low is sensible. We found no trial designed to test ginger in people with reflux disease. Authoritative guidance ^{34 74 8}
Bleeding and blood thinners: the evidence is mixed, so be careful. Lab tests show ginger can reduce platelet stickiness, but in a trial of 8 healthy men 2 g of dried ginger changed no platelet measure, and in a crossover study of 12 healthy men 7 days of ginger did not change INR or warfarin levels. Against that, one case report describes a 76-year-old woman on a warfarin-type drug (phenprocoumon) whose INR rose to 10 with a nosebleed some weeks after starting ginger products, and NIH's LactMed says ginger can increase bleeding risk with warfarin. A 2021 systematic review and a 2025 review both list ginger among foods or herbs that may raise bleeding risk with warfarin, while an older 2000 review found evidence lacking. No trial has tested ginger in people taking long-term anticoagulants or having surgery. If you take warfarin or other blood thinners, or have a bleeding disorder or planned surgery, talk to your prescriber before using ginger supplements and have your INR checked after starting. Case report ^{60 43 49 29 103 102 107 65 44}
Pregnancy: used for nausea in studies, but the EU monograph says to avoid it as a precaution. Meta-analyses of trials in pregnant women (for example 12 trials, 1278 women) report that ginger eases nausea and found no significant excess of miscarriage, heartburn or drowsiness, although the miscarriage estimate was very imprecise (risk ratio 3.14, 95% CI 0.65 to 15.11). The EU monograph notes a moderate amount of data (300 to 1000 pregnancy outcomes) showing no malformation or foetal toxicity, yet advises avoiding ginger medicines in pregnancy as a precaution, in part because pregnant rodents given ginger powder or water extracts showed more embryo resorption at doses slightly to a few times above human doses. NCCIH says ginger supplements in pregnancy 'may be safe' and to consult a provider. Short courses at about 1 g a day are what trials tested; cooking amounts of ginger are a different matter. Check with your midwife or doctor before using supplements. Meta-analysis ^{109 14 28 105 51 104 42 34 74}
Gallstones: no evidence found either way. A common caution says people with gallstones should avoid ginger, but we found no trial or case report in people with gallstones. The one study we read tested 1,200 mg of ginger in 19 healthy young men and found no change in gallbladder emptying. The EU ginger monograph does not mention gallstones and NCCIH did not address them. Because ginger is sometimes thought to stimulate bile flow, people with gallstones or bile-duct disease can reasonably ask their doctor before taking concentrated supplements; this is caution, not a finding. Controlled trial ^{20 34 74}
Liver: no liver injury signal found. NIH's LiverTox states ginger has not been linked to liver enzyme rises or to clinically apparent liver injury. We found no case reports of ginger liver injury. This is reassuring but is the absence of reports, not proof of safety in every product. Authoritative guidance ⁵⁷
Possible interactions with immunosuppressants, mostly from animal work. Ginger juice cut oral cyclosporine exposure by about 63% (AUC) in rats and raised tacrolimus exposure in another rat study, but in one kidney-transplant patient 10 g a day of ginger for 4 days did not change tacrolimus blood levels. Evidence in people is a single case, so transplant patients should not assume it is safe or unsafe; ask the transplant team. Animal research ^{18 33 13}
Breastfeeding: limited data. NCCIH says little is known about safety while breastfeeding; the EU monograph does not recommend medicinal use during lactation because safety is not established; LactMed says ginger is GRAS as a food flavouring including in lactation and data in nursing mothers are very limited. A systematic review of five trials of ginger for milk supply reported no adverse effect directly related to ginger. Authoritative guidance ^{74 34 29 27}

Side effects 7

Effect	How often	Severity and recovery	Evidence
Heartburn Pregnancy meta-analysis found no significant excess heartburn versus placebo. The open-label study had no comparison group.	EU monograph: common (1 in 100 to under 1 in 10). Open-label study: 12.8% of 47 people at 1080 mg/day over 8 weeks.	mild Reversible	Authoritative guidance ^{34 74 8 109}
Stomach upset, indigestion, belching, nausea LactMed also lists abdominal discomfort as occasional.	EU monograph: common (1 in 100 to under 1 in 10)	mild Reversible	Authoritative guidance ^{34 29}
Bloating and diarrhea No placebo group; people had indigestion at the start.	Bloating 14.9% and diarrhea 10.6% (47 people with dyspepsia, open-label)	mild Reversible	Non randomised trial ^{8 74}
Mouth or throat irritation, bad taste, dry mouth No percentage in the sources we read.	Not established	mild Reversible	Authoritative guidance ^{74 29}
Headache, weight gain Listed by LactMed as occasional; no figures.	Not established	mild Reversible	Authoritative guidance ²⁹
Allergic skin reaction or other hypersensitivity Allergy to ginger is a contraindication in the EU monograph. We did not find case series describing severe reactions.	Frequency not known (EU monograph)	variable Usually reversible on stopping	Authoritative guidance ³⁴
Raised INR and nosebleed in a warfarin-type drug user One case report; no incidence.	Not established	potentially serious INR normalised after stopping and vitamin K1	Case report ⁴⁹

Liver

NIH's LiverTox opening statement says ginger is generally recognized as safe, and has not been linked to blood liver-enzyme elevations or to clinically apparent liver injury. We found no case reports of ginger-induced liver injury. We could read only the opening statement of the LiverTox entry (the full page blocks automated access), so any further detail such as its likelihood score was not seen. Short trials in functional dyspepsia (80 people for 12 weeks) reported no clinically meaningful changes in blood chemistry. Studies showing ginger protects the liver are animal work and are not evidence of safety or benefit in people. ^{57 10}

How often. No cases found, so no rate can be given. 'Not linked' is LiverTox's wording for the cases it knows of.

Monitoring. No guideline suggests routine liver tests for ginger users; none found.

This is a safety connection. It is not evidence that Ginger supports liver health.

Medicines and supplements 8

With	Why it matters	Importance	Evidence	What to do
Warfarin and similar vitamin K antagonists (phenprocoumon, acenocoumarol) prescription	Ginger reduced platelet aggregation in lab tests; not shown to change warfarin blood levels. In 12 healthy men, 7 days of ginger did not change INR or warfarin clearance (INR AUC ratio 1.01, 90% CI 0.93-1.15). One patient on phenprocoumon had INR up to 10 with nosebleed after several weeks of ginger.	Evidence conflicts: one negative healthy-volunteer study, one case report, and reviews that list ginger among bleeding-risk items (the 2025 review says even small amounts can potentiate warfarin but gives no source in the abstract). A real effect in some patients cannot be excluded.	Case report Very low certainty ^{43 49 107 103 102 29 39}	If you take warfarin, keep ginger intake steady and tell your clinic; ask for an INR check after any change, and avoid concentrated supplements unless your prescriber agrees.
Antiplatelet drugs and NSAIDs (aspirin, clopidogrel, nifedipine as studied) prescription	Ginger and aspirin each added to nifedipine's reduction of platelet aggregation in a lab test in volunteers and hypertensive patients. Dried ginger 2 g alone changed no platelet measure in 8 healthy men.	Platelet tests only; no bleeding outcome. Additive effects on bleeding with antiplatelet drugs are plausible but not shown.	Controlled trial Not enough evidence ^{117 60 65}	Tell your prescriber if you use ginger supplements regularly alongside aspirin or other antiplatelet drugs.
Surgery and anaesthesia prescription	Theoretical bleeding concern from the platelet effects above. The sources we read do not give a stopping time and no surgical-bleeding trial of ginger was found.	Unknown. The EU monograph and NCCIH say nothing about surgery.	Pharmacological theory Not enough evidence ^{65 34}	Tell your surgeon and anaesthetist about ginger supplements and ask when to stop; this is a precaution, not a measured risk.
Cyclosporine prescription	In rats, ginger juice lowered oral cyclosporine Cmax by 70.9% and AUC by 63.1% (51.4% and 40.3% when given 2 hours earlier); intravenous dosing unchanged, so absorption is affected.	Animal data only; a drop in cyclosporine could risk transplant rejection if it happens in people. No human data found.	Animal research Very low certainty ¹⁸	Transplant patients on cyclosporine should ask their transplant team before taking ginger products.
Tacrolimus prescription	Ginger juice raised tacrolimus AUC in rats. In one kidney-transplant patient, 10 g/day of ginger for 4 days under monitoring did not change tacrolimus blood levels.	Conflicting; one animal study and one human case.	Animal research Very low certainty ^{33 13}	Do not start large amounts of ginger without the transplant team knowing; levels can be monitored.
Metronidazole prescription	In rabbits ginger raised metronidazole absorption and half-life and lowered its clearance.	Animal data only; no human data found.	Animal research Very low certainty ⁷⁹	No specific action is supported; mention ginger supplements to your pharmacist.
Diabetes medicines and blood pressure medicines prescription	We did not read primary evidence that ginger changes the effect of these drugs in people. The umbrella review reports ginger lowered blood sugar and blood pressure in some trials, so additive lowering is conceivable.	Not studied as an interaction.	Pharmacological theory Not enough evidence ²¹	If you take medicines for blood sugar or blood pressure, watch readings when starting a supplement.
EU monograph overall regulatory	The EU herbal monograph (2025) states no interactions are known for ginger rhizome at the doses assessed; it does not discuss bleeding.	Absence of reported interactions in the assessed literature.	Authoritative guidance Low certainty ³⁴	Read together with the bleeding entries above.

Who should check first 9

Situation	Advice	Evidence
Allergy to ginger	Do not use. The EU monograph lists hypersensitivity to the active substance as the only contraindication.	Authoritative guidance ³⁴
Taking warfarin or other blood thinners	Not an official contraindication in the sources read, but reviews and a case report warn of extra bleeding risk. Ask your prescriber and monitor INR.	Case report ^{49 103 102 43}
Bleeding disorder or surgery planned	Precaution only: no bleeding trials found. Tell the surgical team and ask about stopping supplements beforehand.	Pharmacological theory ⁶⁵
Pregnancy	EU monograph: preferable to avoid medicinal use. Trials for nausea (about 1 g a day for several days) found no clear harm. Decide with your midwife or doctor.	Authoritative guidance ^{34 109 74}
Breastfeeding	EU monograph does not recommend medicinal use; food amounts are generally regarded as safe by FDA per LactMed. Limited data.	Authoritative guidance ^{34 29}
Children and teenagers under 18	EU monograph does not recommend the medicinal uses under 18 (insufficient data); motion-sickness use under 6 has not been established.	Authoritative guidance ³⁴
Gallstones or bile-duct disease	No evidence found either way; ask your doctor before concentrated supplements.	Pharmacological theory ²⁰
Reflux or frequent heartburn	Heartburn is a listed common effect; try small amounts with food or avoid supplements if symptoms worsen.	Authoritative guidance ^{34 8}
Organ transplant on cyclosporine or tacrolimus	Ask the transplant team; animal studies suggest altered drug levels.	Animal research ^{18 33 13}

Overdose, product quality and regulators

Summary. The EU monograph says oral repeat-dose studies of up to 12 months with ethanolic ginger extracts found toxic effects only at doses higher than humans normally take, and no overdose case has been reported. Reproductive toxicity, genotoxicity and carcinogenicity tests were judged inadequate. The part used is the rhizome; we found no source describing toxicity of leaves or other parts, so none is claimed.

Animal. Per the EU monograph: pregnant rodents given ginger powder or aqueous extracts showed increased embryo resorption at doses from slightly above to a few times higher than human therapeutic doses, and at higher doses advanced skeletal development, maternal toxicity and fewer live foetuses and implantation sites; another rat study with an ethanolic extract found no adverse effects. Male rats had higher testicular weight and testosterone after 8 days of an aqueous extract at roughly twice human doses. A 2025 systematic review of animal pregnancy outcomes exists (not read).

Human doses studied. EU well-established use: 1 to 2 g powdered rhizome one hour before travel for motion sickness; traditional uses 0.18 to 1 g three times daily. Umbrella review: 0.5 to 3 g a day in capsules for up to 3 months. Open-label: 1080 mg a day for 8 weeks. One patient took 10 g a day for 4 days with tacrolimus monitoring.

High dose or long term signals. No human long-term safety trial beyond about 3 months was found. Heartburn and stomach effects are the signal at supplement doses.

Overdose response. No case of overdose reported (EU monograph).

Genotoxicity. Adequate genotoxicity tests have not been performed per the EU monograph.

Toxic plant parts. Only the rhizome is used in the sources read. No source found describing toxic leaves, stems or flowers; unknown, not assumed safe.

Documented problems are mould toxins in raw and powdered ginger from one region and a historical deliberate poisoning of an alcohol-based 'Jamaica ginger' extract. We found no large modern survey of heavy metals, pesticides or adulteration of ginger supplements that we could verify.

Aflatoxin and ochratoxin. All raw ginger and commercial powder samples from Punjab, Pakistan carried aflatoxin B1 (29.88 to 1060.12 ug/kg), many above the authors' permissible limits; ochratoxin A ranged 0.05 to 3.42 ug/kg. This is one region; it does not show what is on shelves elsewhere. ⁷¹

Historical adulteration (Jamaica ginger paralysis, 1930). Thousands of Americans were poisoned by an illicit 'Jamaica ginger' extract adulterated with the neurotoxic organophosphate triorthocresyl phosphate; survivors had lasting spasticity decades later. This was a deliberate fraud in an alcohol product, not a property of ginger. ⁶⁷

Variable supplement content. LactMed notes supplements may differ from their labels and that trial results from one product may not apply to others. No ginger-specific content analysis was read. ²⁹

Body	Action	Date
European Medicines Agency, Committee on Herbal Medicinal Products (HMPC) (European Union)	Herbal monograph on Zingiber officinale rhizoma, Revision 1: well-established use of powdered rhizome for motion-sickness nausea and vomiting (adults); traditional uses for mild gastrointestinal cramps, loss of appetite, minor joint pain and common cold symptoms. Contraindicated with hypersensitivity. Not recommended under 18. Pregnancy: preferable to avoid as a precaution; lactation not recommended. Common effects: stomach upset, heartburn, nausea. No interactions known. No overdose reported. source	2025-05-07
NIH National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health (NCCIH) (United States)	Ginger taken safely by mouth in many studies; side effects abdominal discomfort, heartburn, diarrhea, mouth or throat irritation; supplements in pregnancy 'may be safe', consult provider; little known for breastfeeding. Page silent on blood thinners and gallstones. source	Last updated February 2025
NIH LiverTox (United States)	Ginger generally recognized as safe; not linked to aminotransferase elevations or clinically apparent liver injury. source	Entry dated 2024-02-10
NIH LactMed (United States)	Very limited data in nursing mothers; GRAS as food; mild occasional side effects; states ginger can increase bleeding risk with warfarin; weak evidence ginger may raise milk supply after vaginal birth. source	Record dated 2026-10-15

When to get medical help

Swelling of the face or throat, trouble breathing, or widespread hives after ginger: get emergency help.
If you take a blood thinner: unusual bruising, nosebleeds that will not stop, blood in urine or stool, black stools, or a very high INR result: contact your clinic the same day; stop the supplement.
Vomiting blood or black tarry stools: emergency care.
Severe or persistent heartburn or stomach pain after starting ginger: stop and see a doctor.
Pregnant with bleeding, cramps, or vomiting so severe you cannot keep fluids down: call your midwife or doctor; do not rely on ginger.
Transplant patients: any sign of rejection or a drug-level change after starting ginger: contact the transplant team.

Stop the supplement and contact a clinician or emergency service. In the US, Poison Control is 1-800-222-1222.

General information only, not medical advice. Ask a clinician or pharmacist before use, especially with medicines, in pregnancy or with a health condition. See the Natural Remedy Safety guide.

Frequently asked questions

Does ginger help with nausea in pregnancy?

It probably helps the feeling of nausea. Pooled analyses of trials in pregnant women find less nausea with ginger than with placebo, and about the same as vitamin B6. It did not clearly reduce how often women vomit. The certainty is moderate, because one review called the evidence low quality and another rated it high. Trials used about 1 g a day for a few days to three weeks. Talk to your midwife or doctor first, especially for severe vomiting.

^{109 42 100 21}

Does ginger help with chemotherapy nausea?

The evidence is mixed. One 2024 trial of 103 people found less delayed nausea and vomiting when ginger was added to usual anti-sickness drugs, but it did not help nausea on the first day. One review of 23 trials found no overall difference, and another found benefit mainly for severe symptoms. Ginger was only tested as an add-on, never a replacement, so tell your cancer team before using it.

^{23 19 56}

How much ginger should I take?

There is no single proven dose. In trials, ginger powder was usually 0.5 to 3 g a day, and about 1 g a day was common for pregnancy nausea, period pain and surgery nausea. A chemotherapy trial used a standardised 84 mg a day of gingerols and shogaols. The EU lists 1 to 2 g of powder an hour before travel for motion sickness, and 0.18 to 1 g three times a day for the traditional uses, for adults only. Label doses can differ from all of these, so ask a clinician if you are unsure.

^{21 34 23 31}

Is ginger tea as good as ginger capsules?

Unknown. The trials we read used capsules of powder or extract, and we found no placebo-controlled trial of ginger tea. The gingerol content of tea is not measured and varies with how much root you use and how long it steeps. Tea is a traditional, pleasant way to take ginger, but its effect cannot be read from capsule trials.

^{101 34}

Is ginger safe with blood thinners like warfarin?

The evidence is mixed, so be careful. Ginger reduced platelet stickiness in lab tests, but in two small studies of healthy men it did not change clotting measures or warfarin levels. One case report describes a very high INR and a nosebleed in a woman on a warfarin-type drug after ginger products. Some reviews list ginger as a possible bleeding risk with warfarin. No trial has tested it in people on long-term blood thinners. If you take any blood thinner, ask your prescriber and keep your intake steady.

^{49 65 117 103}

Is ginger safe in pregnancy?

Official advice differs. The EU herbal monograph says it is preferable to avoid ginger medicines in pregnancy as a precaution, even though data on 300 to 1000 pregnancies showed no malformations. The NIH says ginger supplements "may be safe" and to consult a provider. Trials for nausea used about 1 g a day for short periods and found no clear harm, though the miscarriage estimate was very imprecise. Check with your midwife or doctor before using supplements. Cooking amounts are a different matter.

^{34 74 109}

Is ginger safe with gallstones?

Nobody knows. A common warning says to avoid ginger with gallstones, but we found no study in people with gallstones. The one study we read gave 1,200 mg to 19 healthy young men and found no change in gallbladder emptying. Because ginger is sometimes thought to stimulate bile flow, people with gallstones or bile-duct disease can reasonably ask their doctor before taking concentrated supplements. That is caution, not a finding.

^{20 34 74}

What is a safe daily limit for ginger?

We found no official upper limit. A 2022 umbrella review reported that 0.5 to 3 g a day in capsules for up to 3 months was consistently reported as effective and appeared safe, and the EU reports no case of overdose. We found no human safety trial beyond about 3 months. At higher supplement doses, heartburn and stomach upset are the main signal. Eating ginger in food is a different matter from concentrated capsules.

^{21 34 74}

Can ginger help with osteoarthritis pain?

Maybe a little. A 2015 pooled analysis of five placebo-controlled trials found a small pain benefit, but a 2020 review of knee studies called the evidence insufficient because the trials were poor and varied. A 1 g a day trial found no benefit, and more people stopped taking ginger than placebo. Ginger is not a replacement for treatment, so talk to your doctor if you have joint pain with swelling, redness or fever.

^{11 7 21}

Does ginger help with period pain?

It probably does. Pooled trials find less period pain than placebo, and in two small trials without placebo, about the same relief as ordinary anti-inflammatory painkillers such as ibuprofen. Trials used about 750 to 2,000 mg of powder a day for the first three or four days of the period. Results vary a lot between trials, so how much it helps is uncertain. See a doctor if pain is severe or new.

^{68 24 21}

Can ginger cause heartburn?

Yes, in some people. The EU monograph lists heartburn, stomach upset, belching and nausea as common effects (between 1 in 100 and 1 in 10 people). In one 8-week open-label study of 1,080 mg a day, 12.8 percent of 47 people had mild, temporary heartburn. A pooled analysis in pregnancy found no significant excess heartburn against placebo. No trial tested ginger in people with reflux disease, so if you already have reflux, start low and take it with food.

^{34 74 8 109}

Does ginger help the brain, mood or sleep?

There is very little evidence. One small trial of 60 healthy middle-aged women found better working memory on ginger extract. The one trial of mood and anxiety in healthy young adults found no difference from placebo, and a warm ginger foot bath did not improve sleep more than plain warm water. Nobody has tested swallowed ginger for sleep or depression. Ginger is better supported for nausea and period pain than for the mind.

^{92 22 50 80}

Editorial transparency

Written by: AlternativeMed editorial team. Research compiled with AI assistance, then checked against PubMed records.
Medical review: None. This page has not been reviewed by a physician or pharmacist.
First published: 2026-10-24
Last substantive update: 2026-10-24
How we research: We searched PubMed, NIH NCCIH, LactMed, the EU herbal monograph and other regulators' pages, opened each source and recorded the study design, people, product, dose and result as reported. Abstracts only for most studies; the EU monograph text was read in full. Some sources (for example the NIH LiverTox entry and the Commission E and WHO monographs) could not be read directly or were not read, and nothing is claimed about them beyond what is marked. Facts about the plant's origin and ancient history rest on encyclopedia summaries and are marked as not verified. No study is cited that we could not verify.
How we rate evidence: See "How we rate evidence" in the Evidence tab.
Independence: No product is promoted on this page. No affiliate links are shown. If one is added later it will be labelled and kept apart from the evidence.

Sources 124

Each source was opened and checked. Where we read only the abstract, it says so. The small numbers in the text point here.

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Abdel-Aziz H, Windeck T, Ploch M et al.. Mode of action of gingerols and shogaols on 5-HT3 receptors: binding studies, cation uptake by the receptor channel and contraction of isolated guinea-pig ileum. Eur J Pharmacol. 2006. PMID 16364290. DOI 10.1016/j.ejphar.2005.10.049. (abstract)
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