Saffron, Cloves and Other Whole Spices as Food
Saffron, cloves, nutmeg and star anise as cooking spices. What reviews found for saffron, saffron fraud, the clove oil danger, nutmeg and star anise poisonings, and spice allergy.
Content last updated . This page has not been medically reviewed.
Safety first. Supplements can cause side effects and interact with medicines. Read mushroom safety and interactions before you use any mushroom product.
Poisoning first. Clove oil, nutmeg in large amounts and star anise tea given to babies have all been linked to serious poisoning in the reports below. For a possible poisoning in the US, call Poison Help at 1-800-222-1222 (US), or 911 in an emergency. See Poisoning: what to do first. Spice allergy can also be serious; see the allergy point below.
Saffron
Saffron is the commercial name for the dried red stigmas of the flower of Crocus sativus L. (Iridaceae). [1] [2]Traditional use. In pregnancy, saffron is used in many regions, particularly in South Asia and the Middle East, for beliefs such as fetal complexion, maternal strength and labor readiness. [3] This is traditional use only.
What research shows.
| Question | What the source found | Strength of evidence | Form studied |
|---|---|---|---|
| Blood sugar, blood pressure, cholesterol, mood, cognition | A review of 19 meta-analyses reported that saffron reduced fasting glucose, diastolic blood pressure, total and LDL cholesterol and improved depression symptoms compared with controls (mainly placebo), with mixed results across reviews. [4] | Promising but limited | Saffron given in trials; the abstract does not describe cooking amounts |
| Saffron as a cooking spice | Proper evidence not found. We searched PubMed for saffron reviews and safety; the trials were not of seasoning amounts. | Not assessable | Cooking amounts |
The reviewers said the quality of the meta-analyses needs improvement and that effects must be confirmed in high-quality randomized trials. [4]
Safety. Common side effects in the trials were nausea, dry mouth, poor appetite and headache, with no serious adverse reactions reported. [4] For pregnancy, an integrative review of 12 studies found the evidence limited and inconclusive, and linked higher doses or occupational exposure to uterine stimulation and increased miscarriage risk. [3] Ask a prenatal clinician before using saffron beyond cooking; no amounts are given here.
Fraud. A systematic review of 23 studies estimated that 20 to 30% of commercial saffron is adulterated worldwide, from 3.5% in regulated EU markets to 60% in India. It found substitution with safflower, marigold or turmeric, and added synthetic dyes such as Sudan compounds. [5] See Product quality and contamination.
Cloves
Cloves are the spice from Syzygium aromaticum (L.) Merr. & L.M.Perry (Myrtaceae). [6] The European Medicines Agency lists it under the Latin name Caryophylli flos. [7]What research shows. In 2012 the EMA herbal committee (HMPC) decided that no EU herbal monograph for clove would be established unless new data are provided. [7] Proper evidence not found in the sources we read for health outcomes from cloves eaten as a spice. We searched PubMed for clove and eugenol safety, and the EMA herbal pages; results were mostly dental gel trials and lab studies, and the NCCIH clove page was not available to us.
Clove oil is not a food. A 1992 case report describes a 2-year-old child who developed a serious blood-clotting disorder and liver cell death after swallowing clove oil. [8] It is one case, but it illustrates why oil is kept separate from the spice. See Clove oil and Swallowing essential oils.
Nutmeg and star anise
- Nutmeg. An Illinois Poison Center review of 2001 to 2011 found 32 nutmeg ingestions; 17 were unintentional, 10 of those in children under 13, and 15 were intentional. [9] See Nutmeg.
- Star anise. Chinese star anise (Illicium verum) is a common spice, but Japanese star anise (Illicium anisatum) has documented neurologic and digestive toxicity. A report described 7 infants with neurologic reactions after star anise tea at home, and evidence that Chinese star anise had been contaminated with the Japanese kind; the authors said star anise tea should no longer be given to infants. [10] See Star anise.
Related
Saffron profile, Cloves profile and Black pepper, cayenne and capsaicin foods.Frequently asked questions
Is saffron good for depression?
Reviews of trials reported improved depression symptoms compared with controls, but the reviews were of uneven quality and need confirmation. [4] These trials were not of seasoning amounts.
Is saffron safe in pregnancy?
Evidence is limited and inconclusive; higher doses were linked to uterine stimulation and miscarriage risk. [3] Ask your prenatal clinician.
How common is fake saffron?
A systematic review estimated 20 to 30% of commercial saffron is adulterated worldwide, with large regional differences. [5]
Is clove oil safe to swallow?
A case report describes serious harm in a 2-year-old after swallowing clove oil. [8] Call Poison Help at 1-800-222-1222 for any swallowing of essential oil.
Can children eat nutmeg or star anise?
In poison-center data, 10 of 17 unintentional nutmeg exposures were in children under 13. [9] Star anise tea should not be given to infants. [10]
More details: evidence, limits and cautions
The details behind this page: cautions, limits of the evidence and where sources disagree. Open any note to read it.
Spice allergy and who should ask
- Allergy. Reviews list mustard, celery, coriander, fennel, cumin, anise and pepper among spices that cause reactions, from mild mouth symptoms to anaphylaxis, often with cross-reactivity to birch and mugwort pollen. [11] Mustard is described as one of the most allergenic spices, with severe reactions possible in small amounts. [12] Call 911 for trouble breathing or swelling of the face or throat. See Food allergy basics and emergency signs.
- Medicines, children, liver and kidney, surgery. Not described for these spices as food in the sources we read. Ask a pharmacist or clinician, especially before using concentrated products. See How interactions work.
References
- Detection of Saffron's Main Bioactive Compounds and Their Relationship with Commercial Quality. Foods 2022. PMID 37430993. Read 2026-10-23.
- GBIF Secretariat. Crocus sativus L., GBIF Backbone Taxonomy. Read 2026-10-23.
- Saffron and Pregnancy: Cultural Practices, Beliefs, and Safety Evidence: An Integrative Review. J Evid Based Integr Med 2026. PMID 42186868. Read 2026-10-23.
- Saffron (Crocus sativus L.) and health outcomes: a meta-research review of meta-analyses and an evidence mapping study. Phytomedicine 2021. PMID 34419735. Read 2026-10-23.
- Combating saffron fraud: a systematic review of adulteration practices, detection technologies, recommendations and challenges. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr 2026. PMID 40792566. Read 2026-10-23.
- GBIF Secretariat. Syzygium aromaticum (L.) Merr. & L.M.Perry, GBIF Backbone Taxonomy. Read 2026-10-23.
- European Medicines Agency (EMA), Committee on Herbal Medicinal Products (HMPC). Caryophylli flos (clove), herbal medicinal product, public statement. Read 2026-10-23.
- Disseminated intravascular coagulation and hepatocellular necrosis due to clove oil. Blood Coagul Fibrinolysis 1992. PMID 1450336. Read 2026-10-23.
- Nutmeg poisonings: a retrospective review of 10 years experience from the Illinois Poison Center, 2001-2011. J Med Toxicol 2014. PMID 24452991. Read 2026-10-23.
- Neurotoxicities in infants seen with the consumption of star anise tea. Pediatrics 2004. PMID 15492355. Read 2026-10-23.
- Spices, herbs and allergic reactions in children: myth or reality - a narrative review with scoping elements. Front Allergy 2025. PMID 41306764. Read 2026-10-23.
- Allergic reactions to spices: a review of sensitivities to pepper, cumin, oregano, anise, mustard and other spices. Eur Ann Allergy Clin Immunol 2026. PMID 40341008. Read 2026-10-23.